Chapt Development in Idc a Tors

8/7/2019 Chapt Development in Idc a Tors

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Chapt 8: Development and Quality of LIfeWords to know:

What is development?Development is a progressive process. Its aim is to achieve economic growth for thecountry. With economic growth, the country will enjoy a high standard of living and quality

of life.

Standard of living refers to the goods and services available to people in the environmentthey live in. if you have access to education, health care and basic amenities, you can besaid to enjoy a high standard of living.

Quality of life refers to the degree of personal satisfaction/ dissatisfaction with yourlifestyle and living conditions. This looks beyond the basic needs of the people. It mayrefer to factors such as political and religious freedom, environment and non-materialthings.

Quality of life is harder to measure because it involves the perception of people.

Characteristics of Development

a. it is a continuous process. There is no ceiling to development. No country can say that ithas achieved the highest level of development possible.

b. the pace of development varies from country to country. It is possible for somecountries to be held back because of uncertainties such as political instability andenvironmental disasters.

c. The result of development can be both positive and negative. For example,industrialisation which brings about higher standard of living can increase the pollution in

the country.

Classification of Countries

The most common classification is to group countries into Developed Countries (DCs) orLess Developed Countries (LDCs)

Why do countries develop unevenly?

The Core-Periphery ModelThis model by John Friedmann attempt to explain the differences in regional development.

Core countries are richer and developed countries while periphery refers to the poorer andless developed countries.

The theory proposes that development was initially brought about by natural advantagessuch as presence of natural resources, good natural harbour and plentiful supply of cheaplabour. These advantages stimulate development and over time , the region is able toestablish a reputation for growth. Infrastructure becomes better and skills of the labourincrease. This attracts more and more investments. Eventually, the development of thesecountries outpace the surrounding areas. They become the core countries.

The periphery countries have less employment opportunities and poorer infrastructure

than the core. They lack the skill and technology to manufacture finished products. Hence,core countries buy raw materials , processed them and sell the finished products back tothe periphery countries at a higher price.

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At the same time, skilled labour tend to go to core countries for better jobs and std ofliving. Hence the periphery is drained of labour and wealth.In the core-periphery relationship, the core develops at the expense of the periphery.While the core attains higher standard of living, the economic growth in the periphery isslowed down or stagnated.

In the past, colonised countries were often the peripheries and become exploited. Theybecome dependent on core for trade and development.

Uneven developmentwithin countries (on national level)Within a country, the core is usually the capital city. It is the most developed part of thecountry with the best infrastructure like CBD, banking etc. and the highest std of living.It therefore attracts the most capital and talent.

The periphery becomes the areas outside and surrounding the city. As the distance fromthe city increases, the periphery becomes poorer.

As a core develops, the effects of development may spread and stimulate development in

the periphery regions. This is called the spread effect.However, it may also lead to a backwash effect such as draining of investment, labourand raw materials from the periphery to the core.

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Indicators of DevelopmentTo compare levels of development, one needs to identify common indicators to trackprogress over periods of time.There are several categories of indicators

Indicators ofDevelopment

Employment Structure

DemographicIndicators

Life Expectancy

Infant Mortality

Urban Population

Socialindicators

Access to water &sanitation

Adult Literacy Rate

Population Structure

3

EconomicIndicators

GNP


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Indicators of Development and how to interpret them

Economic Indicators

Type of Indicator Description of Indicators How to interpret indicators

1. Gross

NationalProduct

GNP refers to the total value of

goods and services produced by thecitizens of a country in a given year,locally or abroad.

GNP per capita refers to how muchincome each citizen generates. Thistakes into consideration the size ofthe population. Hence it is a bettermeasurement.

It is obtained by calculating asfollows:

GNP = A +(B- C)Population sizeA- income from all goods andservices produced in a yearB- income produced by citizensinvesting and working abroadC- income from foreigners workingin the country

1.A high GNP tells us that the peopleenjoy a high standard of living. They areable to afford luxuries and have thingsthat make life more comfortable.

2.It is also an indication that the countrycan spend more on improving the livingconditions of the people.

3.It also tells us that the country has ahigher proportion of secondary andtertiary industries which bring in a higher

amount of income as it is more valueadded.

4. A low GNP tells us that the country hasa larger primary industry. Primary goodsgenerate less profits because they a lowvalue added.

Limitations of GNP

1. GNP per capita does not showindividual differences. It is an average

figure. For eg. In the same country, somepeople are extremely rich and some areextremely poor. GNP per capita does notshow this.

2. Data from informal economic activitiesare not reflected as they are notregistered with the government.

3. some countries do not have anyaccurate data available. Hence it isdifficult to calculate.

2.Employmentstructure

It shows the proportion of theworkforce in the 3 main economicsectors: primary industry, secondaryand tertiary industry.

Each sector contributes differentamount of wealth to the country.

Primary industry contributesrelatively little to the countryswealth because activities that

extract natural resources directlyfrom the earth do not generatemuch income.

DCs have the largest proportion of theirworkforce in tertiary sector and thesmallest in primary sector.

Because of mechanisation, machinestake over the work of people. Hence lesspeople are needed for this activity. Also,primary resources have becomeexhausted and is imported.

There is also a lower proportion in

secondary sector because fewer peopleare needed to work in factories asrobots/machines are taking over jobs.

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Secondary and tertiary industriesgenerate more income. Processingraw materials make it moreprofitable. Services , especiallyspecialised services generate the

most wealth.

Employment structure is shown in 2ways:

1. pie graph2. triangular graph

The tertiary sector is the main growtharea. With literacy at a high level,mostpeople work in hospitals, schools, officesandfinancial services.

The employment opportunities in a DCs

are higher. With higher income, peopleare able todemand more goods andservices ( like leisure and entertainment)because they want a better lifestyle.More employment opportunities will becreated in these areas.

Demographic Indicators

Description of Indicators How to interpret indicators

1. Populationstructure.

It shows the distribution of age-sexratio of a population.It can be divided into 3 groups:

dependent young active population

dependent aged

DCs have a smaller percentage of itspopulation below the age of 15 and alarger percentage above 60.

Age 15 and below is small because theyhave better family planning and low BR.Age 60 and above is larger because Lifeexpectancy is high.Active population is more thandependents, hence the dependencyburden is less.

LEDCs have a large percentage of aged15 and below and a small percentage ofabove 60.

2. LifeExpectancy

Refers to how long a person isexpected to live.It is a reflection of the standard ofhealth and quality of medical careand the quality of life in the country.

A developed country has long lifeexpectancy . this tells us that the countryis able to provide a high standard ofsanitation and quality of medical care .The infrastructure of the countries isgood. People would have access to safewater and there is sufficient food. As aresult , people live longer.

A developing country has low lifeexpectancy. The country is unable toprovide enough medical facilities anddoctors. The low standard of hygiene andsanitation suggests that there may beprevalence of diseases. People do nothave access to medical services.

3. Fertility Rate It refers to number of live births ayear per 1000 women between agesof 15 to 44

DCs have lower fertility rate because:

people have higher education,they are more concerned withcareers and delay marriages.

Women have better knowledge of

contraception and birth control People are aware of the

advantages of having small

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familiesLDCs have higher fertility rates because:

They lack knowledge of birthcontrol

sees children as assets on theirfarms and work

cultural /traditional thinking egpreference for males

4. InfantMortality Rate

Refers to the no of deaths amongchildren aged one and below forevery 1000 babies born alive.

DCs have low infant mortality rate is. Ittells us that there is:

good sanitation facilities

good healthcare systems

good access to medical serviceslike doctors and hospitals.

good diet & nutrition

high income-can afford properhealth care

LEDCs have high infant mortality rate. Ittells us that there may be:

occurance of war or politicalinstability

drought causing famine andmalnutraition

poor sanitation and hygieneleading to spread of diseases.

5. UrbanPopulation

This refers to the percentage ofpeople living in urban areas.

The % is higher in DCs than LEDCs.

DCs have higher percentage because:

they have the financial resources

to develop cities with moderninfrastructure

more people work in secondaryand tertiary industries which arelocated in urban areas .

LEDCs have lower percentage because:

a large percentage of people areinvolved in primary activities likefarming and mining. These arepractised in rural areas.

However, urban population is not entirelyaccurate because of the emergingcounter urbanisation trend. In some DCs,people are relocating back to the suburbsdue to increasing congestion and levels ofpollution in the cities.

Also in urban areas, areas of slums andsquatters are increasing. These areashave no access to water and electricitysupply, have make shift shelters.

Social IndicatorsDescription of Indicators How to interpret indicators

1. Access to Safe drinking water is essential as it DCs have better access to clean water.

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Data is not accurate for some indicators like GDP per capita. Income from informalsectors (eg hawkers) cannot be captured.

Changes in Employment Structure

How do employment patterns differ between countries?

Primary: decreases Secondary: increases at

first, then decreases

Tertiary: increases

Mechanisation of farmsreduces need for farm

workers. Rural workersmigrate to the urban areas

Raw materials becomeexhausted leading to lossof mining jobs

Rural depopulation of

farmers in MEDCs.Workers prefer the better

paid and less physicallydemanding jobs in thetertiary sector

Industrialisation initiallyrequires a large

secondary workforce

Factory jobs eventuallyreplaced by automation

Manufacturingindustries increasinglymove from MEDCs to

NICs where land andlabour are cheaper

Large and growing informal service sectorin urban areas of LEDCs as workers migrate

from the countryside

As a country develops, level of incomealso rise creating a demand for servicessuch as health, education and tourism

Strong growth in MEDCs of jobs in theknowledge economy based on the

processing of knowledge and informationusing telecommunications. This is possible

as the level of literacy and skill hasincreased.

Industries become more hi-tech andrequire specialised labour which are morevalue added.

Comparing Stages of Development

All countries undergo various stages of development. In an attempt to compare level ofdevelopment among countries, the Rostows model is used as a guide.

Less Economically Developed

Countries

Newly IndustrialisedCountries

More Economically Developed Countries

High primary (farming)

Little mechanisation on farms

Little manufacturing

In early stages of economicdevelopment

Informal service sector in the

cities is quite strong

Strong manufacturingsector

Manytransnationals/MNCsmove to NICs to take

advantage of cheaplabour and land

Farming mechanised

Automation of manufacturing ortransfer of manufacturing to NICs

Very strong tertiary sector with largenumbers employed in health, education

and tourism

Growth of jobs in the knowledge

economy based on the processing ofknowledge and information usingtelecommunications

How do employment patterns change over time?

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According to Rostow, all countries have the potential to develop through 5 stages.How do we recognise these stages?

Traditional Preconditions Economic Society for Take Off take-off

(Start of Secondary Industries)

.

Stages of Growth : characteristics

Traditionalsociety

Preconditions for TakeOff

Take-off Drive to Maturity High Massconsumption

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-Mainlyagricultural-Subsistencefarming-Traditionallifestyles-Resistance to

change

-agriculture becomescommercialized-improvements ininfrastructure andtechnolovy-secondary industrydevelops

-actual changeoccurs-agriculture startsto decline-secondaryindustries expandeg production of

steel, productionof machines-greatermechanization ofagriculture-transportfacilitiesimproved

-greater use ofmoderntechnology- more productionof consumergoods-decline in

importance ofprimary industry-types ofsecondaryindustries expand-rapidurbanization(people movingto cities-transportnetwork expand-standard of livingimproves

- high standards ofliving achieved-increased productionof consumer goods-tremendous growth inservice industry-increased

employment in tertiaryindustry, decreasedemployment insecondary industry.

Limitations of the Model

1 Not all countries go through the 5 stages eg Singapore . thus it is difficult to compare.

2.Not all countries use the same indicators to measure aspects of development.Countries might obtain data from different sources eg. For literacy level, Some countriesmight choose to focus on those aged between 15 to 24 yrs while others might focus onthose aged 15 yrs and above.

3.Countries are also allowed to substitute indicators.

Problems of DevelopmentEvery country faces problems in pursuing development goals. These problems orobstacles vary from country to country. Common problems include:

a. Changes in population structureDevelopment brings about increase in food supply (because of Green Revolution) and

improvements in hygiene, sanitation, health facilities. Death rate declines andpeople live longer. Population grows rapidly.

In countries like China and India, the large population is a problem for governments trying

to improve std of living.

How can population hinder development?

A fast growing population places great pressure on amenities like transport, housing,hospitals etc. It drains the countrys resources, using up money for food , health care andeducation. The govt must keep pace with the needs of the growing population; otherwisethere will be malnutrition, food shortages etc. Facilities become overused and quality oflife drops.A lot of resources are channelled to meet the basic needs of the people so that lessresources are available for development.

b. Food InsufficiencyAs a result of population growth and expansion of cities, farm land is converted forhousing, transport, industries , and other purposes. Less land is available for agriculture.

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In addition, land is being used continuously to grow food for the increasing population. Thefertility of the land is affected. soil erosion causes the land to become bare and uselessafter a long period of time. The amount of food produced becomes less.Countries which are unable to grow enough of their own food will need to import foodand pay for it with its national reserves. It is difficult for these countries to become self-sufficient.In Many developing countries such as Africa, a large percentage of people aremalnourished and undernourished

c. Rapid Urbanisation and OvercrowdingDeveloping countries may face the problem of large-scale rural-urban migration. Cities arethought of as places where job opportunities can be found because most industries arelocated there. As a result, people from the countryside flocked to cities.

Cities become overcrowded. There is not enough housing and many people end up livingin squatter settlements with poor water supply and sanitation. Many homes are makeshiftshelters made of mud or scraps of metal or discarded materials such as cardboard or

planks These houses are fire hazards.The cramped living conditions also encourage the spread of contagious diseases. Someset up homes on steep slopes and mountainsides which are prone to mudslides.

d. Depletion of Natural ResourcesMany countries use industrialisation to promote economic growth and development.However, the tremendous amount of raw materials extracted for these industries hasresulted in depletion of earths natural resources. One such resource is the rainforest.Future development will be hindered by lack of resources.Developing countries extract and export natural resources because it can earn revenuequickly and it does not require skilled labour. As a result, these countries are left with littlenatural resources for their own development.

e. Environmental DegradationIn the process of development, countries neglect to care for and protect their environment.

Modern agricultural systems for example destroy large habitats of flora and fauna becauseareas of forests are flooded to create reservoirs. The increased use of fertilizers(phosphates and nitrates) causes water pollution and contaminate water supply.

Industries release pollutive gases into the atmosphere and discharge of untreatedindustrial waste into rivers and seas.Pollution of air , land and water drive away potentialdevelopers and investors and lower the quality of life of their citizens.

Obstacles to DevelopmentEvery country faces problems in pursuing development goals. These problems or

obstacles vary from country to country. Common problems include:

1.Population

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Size of populationIn countries like China and India, the large population is a problem for governments tryingto improve the quality of life (health, education, housing) for their citizens.How can population hinder development?A lot of resources are also channelled to meet the basic needs of the people so that lessresources are available for development.In many developing countries, there are not enough classrooms and teachers to meet theno of school-going children. This has led to a large number of uneducated children whomay have problems finding jobs..Rate of growth of populationA fast growing population places great pressure on amenities like transport, housing,hospitals etc. the govt cannot build fast enough to cope with the increase in population.Facilities become overused and quality of life drops.

2.Dwindling Arable LandAs a result of population growth and expansion of cities, farm land is converted forhousing, transport, industries , and other purposes. Less land is available for agriculture.

In addition, soil erosion is affecting many areas of fertile lands.Countries which are unable to grow enough of their own food will need to import food andpay for it with its national reserves.Countries wish to be self-sufficient because they do not have to depend on othercountries.

3. Natural HazardsMany developing countries are affected by natural events which hinder development.The Philippines, Indonesia, Bangladesh are countries which are affected periodically bytyphoons and volcanic eruptions. Such natural hazards result in floods, famines,destruction of lives and properties. Governments spent millions recovering from suchnatural disasters.

The Case for Sustainable Development

It is obvious that development is necessary to improve the lives of millions of people. Butit brings with it an endless list of negative effects.

Development should take place such that the natural environment is able to meet theneeds of not only the present generation but also those of the future generations.This is called sustainable development. It is development that meets the needs of thepresent without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Case Study: Development in Singapore

Factors affecting Development of Singapore

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Size of country:

Spore is an extremely small country,

648 sq km with no natural resources.

How does this hinder devt?

o Because of limited space, land

use has to be carefully planned

and monitered for various

purposes.

o Limited space for expansion of

heavy industries

Space must be efficiently used.

How does it help?

o Small size makes it easier to

build facilities and

infrastructure

Population:

How it hinders devt?

o Small population means less labour for

country

o With falling birth rates, there may be

shortage of labour- less attractive to

investors

o Small population also means smaller

market- less attractive to investors

How it helps devt?

o Population is educated and has skills-able

to enter knowledge based industries

o Attractive to hi-tech industries

o Good working culture- people are

Location:

How it helps development?

o Strategic location along major

land and sea routes-well linked to

other countries- helped

established Spore as trading

centre

o Centrally located in the SE Asian

region- helped trade

o

Major regional airport wellconnected by air

o Away from major earthquakes

and volcanic zones- free from

natural disasters

Infrastructure:

How it helps devt.

o It is well planned and efficient

o Good air cargo centre

o Good port facilities

o Good telecommunication network-

satellites, facsimile machines, internet

access

o Good internal transport system- few

traffic jams and congestion

All helped established Spore as trading,

financial, industrial centre.

The Surrounding Region/ Hinterland:

How it helps devt:

o SE Asia has provided Spore with

necessities such as water (Johore)

food, and other raw materials

Regional and Global Trends:

How it helps devt:

o Spore has to continually change to adapt to

global trends in order to progress.

o It has ensured that Spore remains

competitive. Spore has to keep diversifyingits economic activities eg from trading to

manufacturing then banking and services.

Now the country is moving into

information technology and KBE.

How it hinders devt:

o Spore is affected by changes which occur

in other parts of the world eg the economic

downturn in the late 1990s which affected

the growth in Spore.

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Chapt Development in Idc a Tors

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