Prof.E.G.TulapurkaraDept. Of Aerospace Engg.

IIT Madras,Chennai – 600036, India.

August 2008

Introduction to Airplane Design (Aerodynamic)

Index

Chapter 1 : Introduction

Appendix 1.1 Boeing aircraft company

Appendix 1.2 Airbus industryAppendix 1.3 HALAppendix 1.4 Concept to flight-IJT

Chapter 2 : Weight estimation

Chapter 3 : Optimization of wing loading

Chapter 4 : Engine selection

Chapter 5 : Choice of wing parameters

Chapter 6 : Choice of fuselage parameters

Chapter 7 : Special consideration for configuration

lay-out.

Chapter 8 : Weights and centre of gravity

Appendix 8.1 Notes on weight estimation

Chapter 9 : Control surface design

Chapter 10: Miscellaneous topics

Appendix 10.1 Term paper topics

Appendix 10.2 An example of airplane

preliminary design procedure- jet transport

Introduction

Chapter 1

1.1 Purpose and scope of airplane designThe process of design in general involves use of knowledge in diverse fields to arrive at a product. Airplane design involves synthesizing knowledge in areas like aerodynamics, structures, propulsion, systems and manufacturing techniques, to arrive at the configuration of an airplane that will satisfy requirements regarding functional aspects, operational safety and cost .The design of an airplane is a complex engineering task. It generally involves the following.a) Obtaining the specifications and determining the geometric parameters.

b) Selection of power plant.

c) Structural design and working out details of construction.

d) Fabrication of prototype.

e) Determination of airplane performance, stability, loads and structural integrity from flight tests.

Remark:

Figure 1.1a shows the exploded view of Lockheed constellation airplane and illustrates the large variety of parts in an airplane. The parts of fuselage seen in the figure are the nose, the cockpit, the central fuselage and the tail cone. In wing we see the leading edge, the mid section, and the trailing edge. Also seen are the power

Fig. 1.1a Exploded view of an airplane

(Adapted from Ref 1.1 , chapter 1)

plants, the landing gear, the tail surfaces, the control systems, the electrical systems and the fuel systems.Figure 1.1b shows cut away drawing of a Boeing 777-300 airplane, which again brings out the complex nature of the product.The completion of the design of an airplane in a reasonable period of time requires a large body of competent engineers specialized in various areas. Help is also needed from research laboratories to try out and give new ideas and for testing of different components . However, the work of all these must be coordinated by the design bureau. The final design is a compromise between conflicting requirements so

Fig 1.1b Cut-away section of Boeing 777-300(Adapted from Ref 1.2, p.609)

that optimum results are obtained from the point of view of design criteria.

1.1.1 Stages in Airplane Design:The design process can be divided into the following three stages. a) Project feasibility study.b) Preliminary Design.c) Design Project

A) Project Feasibility Studies:The aim of this study is to evolve a complete set of specifications. It involves the following.

1) Comprehensive market survey to assess the number of airplanes needed.

2) Study of the operating conditions for the proposed airplane. These conditions include landing

field length, type of landing field, weather conditions in flight and near landing sites and visibility.

3) Study of relevant design requirements as laiddown by civil and military regulating agencies.

4) Evaluation of existing designs of similarairplanes and possibility of incorporating newconcepts.

5) Collection of data on relevant power plants. 6) Laying down preliminary specifications which may

consist of the following. a) Performance: Maximum velocity, maximum rate of

climb, range, endurance, rate of turn, radius of turn, take-off and landing distances.

b) payload .c) operating conditions .

B) Preliminary Design.

This stage of design process aims at producing a brochure containing preliminary drawings and stating operational capabilities of the airplane for approval by the manufacturer or the customer. It includes the following items.

i) Selection of geometrical parameters of main components based on design criteria.

ii) Arrangement of equipment, and control systems.

iii) Selection of power plant.iv) Aerodynamic and stability calculations.

d) maneuverability.

v) Preliminary structural design of maincomponents.

vi) Weight estimation and c.g. travel.

vii) Preparation of 3-view drawing.

viii) Performance estimation.

ix) Preparation of brochure. Section 10.3 deals with details included in the broucher which is also called aircraft type specification.

C) Design Project: After the preliminary design has been approved by the manufacture / customer , the detailed design studies are carried out. These include the following.

1) Wind tunnel and structural testing on models based on the preliminary design . These test serve as a check on the correctness of the estimated characteristics and assessment of new concepts proposed in the design.

2) Mock-up: This is a full scale model of theairplane or its important sections. This helps in

(a) efficient lay-out of structural components and equipments .

(b) checking the clearances, firing angles ofguns, visibility etc.

Currently this stage can be avoided by the use of CAD packages.

3) Complete wind tunnel testing of the approved configuration.

Currently CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) plays an important role in reducing the number of test to be carried out.4) Preparation of detailed drawings.5) Final selection of power plant, c.g. calculations,

performance & stability calculations.6) Fabrication of prototypes. Generally six prototypes are constructed . Some of them are used for verifying structural integrity and functioning of various systems. Others are used for flight testing to evaluate performance and stability.Remark: According to Ref.2.1 a demonstratorprogram is an agreed schedule of tests of new hardware including complete airplane, before the military customer, in advance of the decision on

procurement and often to establish what is possible . According to Ref.2.2 a demonstrator is a new aircraft, engine or system constructed to prove its novel features prior to embarking on full development of the same product.

7) Pre-production manufacture and flight testing to ensure that the defects in the prototype (s) have been corrected .

8)Series production and flight testing to meet specified operational and airworthiness requirements.

9) Obtaining type certificate : According to Ref.2.1, it is a legal document, issued by regulating agency like Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) in USA, allowing the manufacturer to offer the item (e.g. aircraft ) for sale.

Remarks:

i) Reference 1.3 to 1.14 contain additional information on various stages of airplane design process.

ii) Brief information about design bureaux at Boeing Aircraft company, Airbus Industry and Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd., Bangalore is given in Appendices 1.1,1.2 and 1.3. This would illustrate the complex and multidisciplinary nature of aircraft design. Appendix 1.4 entitled ‘Concepts of flight – IJT’ gives highlights of various stages in the design of the intermediate jet trainer recently designed byHALBangalore.

iii) In the remaining part of this introductory chapter we deal with the following topics.

1.2 Classification of airplanes.1.3 Factors affecting the configuration.

1.4 Stages in preliminary design.

1.5 Brief Historical Background.

1.2 Classification of airplanesBefore discussing further about airplane design, it is helpful to know about different types of airplanes. These are classified according to (a) purpose (b) configuration.

1.2.1 Classification of airplane according to purpose

There are two main types of airplanes viz. civil and military. The category of civil airplanes includes passenger, cargo, agricultural, sports and ambulance.The category of military airplanes includes fighter, bomber, interceptor, reconnaissance, and aircraft for logistic support like troop-carriers and rescue aircraft.

Military aircraft are often designed to cater to more than one role e.g. fighter bomber or interceptor-fighter.The purpose of an airplane dictates its specifications.For example a passenger airplane should have ,(a) high level of safety, (b) high payload carrying capacity, (c) economy in operation,(d) comforts, (e) ability to fly in any weather and (f) ability to use aerodromes of respective classes.

A bomber should have ,(a) long range, (b) high load carrying capacity,(c) high speed ,

An interceptor should have,

(a) high rate of climb,

(b) high ceiling (3 to 4 km above contemporary bombers),

(c) high speed ,

(d) high maneuverability,

(e) ability to fly in any weather and

(f) appropriate armament.

For further details see Ref 1.4, chapter I.

(d) high endurance,

(e) high ceiling and

(f) adequate fire protection.

1.2.2 Classification according to configuration

This classification is carried out according to the following features of the configuration.

a) Shape, number and position of wing.

b) Type of fuselage.

c) Location of horizontal tail .

d) Location and number of engines.

The different types of configurations are shown in Fig. 1.2.

As an exercise the student is advised to study, at this stage , various types of airplanes from Jane's all the world aircraft (Ref.1.2).

Fig1.2 Types of airplane(Adapted from Ref.1.4 , chapter I )

a) Braced biplane

b) Braced sesquiplane

c) Semi-cantilever monoplane

d) Semi-cantilever parasol monoplane

e) Cantilever low wing monoplane

f) Cantilever mid wing monoplane

g) Cantilever high wing monoplane

h) Straight wing monoplane

i) Swept wing monoplane

j) Delta monoplane (small AR)

k) Conventional single fuselage

l) Twin fuselage

m) Pod and boom construction

n) Conventional design

o) Tailless design – no horizontal tail

p) Canard design

1.3 Factors affecting the configurationThe configuration of an airplane is finalized after giving consideration to the following factors.(I) Aerodynamics .

(II) Weight and strength.

(III) Lay-out peculiarities.

(IV) Manufacturing procedures.

(V) Cost and operational economics .

(VI) Interaction between various features.Details of these considerations are given in chapter 7. Herein we give an outline to provide an overall perspective.

I) Aerodynamics:The aerodynamic considerations in the design process involve the following .

Drag:

The drag of the entire configuration must be as small as possible. This requires thin wings, slender fuselage, smooth surface conditions, proper aspect ratio (A) and sweep (Λ) .Lift:

The airplane must be able to develop sufficient lift under various flight conditions including maneuvers. The maximum lift coefficient also decides the landing speed. This considerations require proper choice of aerofoil, means to prevent separation and high lift devices.

Interference:

Usually in aerodynamics the flows past various components like wing, fuselage and tail are studied individually. However in an airplane these components are in proximity to each other and the flow past one component affects that past others. The changes in aerodynamic forces and moments due to this proximity are called interference effects. The lay-out of the airplane should be such that increase in drag and decrease in lift due to interference effects are minimized. This can be achieved by proper fillets at the joints between (a) wing and fuselage, (b) tail and fuselage and (c) wing and engine pods.

II) Weight and Strength:The weight of the aircraft must be as low as possible. This implies use of (a) high strength to weight ratio material, (b) aerofoil with high thickness ratio (c) wing with low aspect ratio (d) relieving loads (e.g. wing-mounted engines). The airplane structure must be strong enough, to take all permissible flight loads and stiff enough to avoid instabilities like, divergence, aileron reversal and flutter.

III) Lay-out peculiarities:The purpose of the airplane many times decides its shape e.g. fuselage of a cargo airplane generally has a rectangular cross section and a large cargo door. The height of fuselage floor should be

appropriate for quick loading and unloading (Fig. 1.3).

Fig 1.3 A cargo airplane - C130 Hercules(Adapted from google.com)

IV) Manufacturing process:

During the detail design stage , adequate thought must be paid to the manufacturing processes . Cost of manufacture and quality control also must be kept in mind.

V) Cost and operational economics :The total operating cost of an airplane is the sum of direct operating cost (DOC) and indirect operating cost (IOC). The DOC relates to the cost of hourly operation of the airplane viz. cost of fuel, lubricants, maintenance, overhaul, replacement of parts for airframe and engine. IOC relates to crew cost, insurance cost, depreciation of airplane and

VI) Interaction of various factors:

Some of the considerations mentioned above may lead to conflicting requirements. Optimization techniques are employed to arrive at the best compromise.

ground equipment, hangar rental, landing charges and overheads. Thus for a personal plane lower initial cost of the airplane may be more important whereas for a long range passenger airplane lower total operating cost may be a primary consideration.

1.4 Stages in preliminary design as part of this course

The aim of this course is to enable the student to appreciate the aerodynamics aspects of preliminary design. The following topics are covered and illustrated through an example on preliminary design of a jet airplane (Appendix 10.2).

(I) Data collection and preparation of

preliminary three-view.

(II) Weight estimate in three stages.

(a) Based on data collection.

(b) Refinement of fuel fraction.

(c) Assessment of empty weight.

(III) Choice of wing loading and thrust loading.(IV) Engine selection and adjustment of wing loading (V) Wing design.

(VI) Fuselage design.

(VII) Location of engine(s).

(VIII) Layout, weight balance & c.g. calculations.

(IX) Determination of tail & control surface areas.

(X) Final drag estimation, performance

calculations and preparation of brochure.

Remarks:

i) It may be recalled that the exercise of preliminary design begins with the specifications of the airplane to be designed. In airplane design bureaux the specifications for civil airplanes are arrived at after (a) market survey and (b) evaluation of existing designs and possibility of incorporating new concepts. In the case of military airplanes the specifications are arrived at after consideration of the aforesaid factors plus the requirements of military authorities namely army/ navy / air force. In the case of civil airplanes the specifications would include the following.

(a) Payload

(b) Performance parameters like cruising speed,

cruising altitude, maximum speed , service ceiling, maximum rate of climb at sea level, range , endurance, take-off distance and landing distance.

(c ) Operating conditions regarding landing and take-off field length, weather conditions in flight and near landing / take-off sites.

d) Air worthiness requirements to be satisfied viz.. Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) in USA, Joint Air worthiness Requirements (JAR) in Europe.

In the case of military airplanes the specifications , in addition to those mentioned earlier, would include expected level of maneuverability and special regulations for military airplanes.

ii) In the case of student design projects the specifications may be given by the instructor. However the students are encouraged to study from literature the design philosophies of different airplanes. AIAA has brought out case studies of some airplanes. Reference 1.14 presents design studies of long range business jet, military trainer, dual mode ( road / air) vehicle, deep interdiction airplane, high altitude uninhabited vehicle and amphibian airplane. These studies indicate the factors that decide the specifications. Appendix ‘C’ presents design of a 150 seater jet transport. The design philosophy is briefly discussed in the beginning.

iii) The specifications would be refined as the design progresses.

1.5 Brief Historical Background

By eighteenth century it was realised that human muscle power was not enough to sustain a man in air by the flapping of the wings like the birds.

It was known that a flat plate at an angle of attack produces lift. Further for a single wing to be stable the centre of gravity (c.g.) should be ahead of aerodynamic centre . Sir George Cayley (1774 –1857) showed that (a) a cambered plate would produce higher lift at the same angle of attack and (b) a combination of two wings - one behind the other would produce a stable configuration. Fig 1.4 shows this concept and a brief explanation is as follows.

Lw

Lt

xaclt

c.g.

Fig. 1.4 Stability of a configuration with two wings

When the combination of the lifting surfaces is disturbed (e.g. by gust of vertical velocity vg), the angle of attack will change by ∆α which is equal to Vg/V∞; V∞ being the free stream velocity.For the combination to be stable, a negative moment (∆Mcg) should be brought about so as to bring the combination back to the original equilibrium.We note that due to ∆α, Lw changes to Lw + ∆Lw and Lt to Lt + ∆Lt. This would produce

c g w a c t tM L x L l∆ = ∆ − ∆

For equilibrium of the configuration with two wings, L = Lw + Lt

Mcg = Lw × xac – Lt × lt

By a suitable choice of lt the rear lifting surface could be small and yet result in a negative value for ∆Mcg. This important conclusion laid the foundation for the conventional configuration of a stable airplane in which a small horizontal tail is located behind the wing.

Development of internal combustion engine in 1860’s provided a power plant lighter than the earlier steam engines.Lilienthal (1848 – 1896) made several hang glider runs and tried to obtain a stable configuration.Orville Wright (1871 –1948) and Wilbur Wright (1867 – 1912) made trials between 1900 to 1903

and arrived at a suitable configuration and successful flight took place on Dec.17,1903.Wright brothers’ airplane (Fig. 1.5) had the canard surface ahead of wing and the vertical tail with rudder behind the wing. Instead of ailerons the control in roll was obtained by warping the wings. It may be pointed out that in the Wright flyer the engine is behind the wing (pusher configuration) .

Fig 1.5 Wright flyer(Adapted from Ref.1.15 , Chapter 1 )

Subsequent developments can be summarized as follows.First successful flight in Europe was by Voisin on March 30, 1907.Louis Bleriot’s airplane flown in 1907 appears to be the first airplane to have ailerons.A. Verdon Roe’s airplane flown in 1911 was a tractor airplane with engine ahead of wing and with horizontal stabilizer at rear.Prior to the first World War (1914 –1918), airplanes were developed for military use namely reconnaissance and for guiding artillery fire and later for throwing grenades and bombs.

During the first World War, airplanes were developed as bombers and fighters. Passenger flights appeared later and by 1925 a variety of airplanes were being designed and used.

By 1930’s improvement in shape, layout and operational characteristics along with more powerful and reliable piston engines, improved equipment & new materials brought about higher speed, larger size, longer range and higher ceiling. Other features like retractable landing gears, engine cowling, fairing at wing fuselage joints were also introduced.

The speed of the airplane increased sharply with availability of jet engines in 1940’s.

Supersonic flight was possible in 1950’s due to the developments in aerodynamics to tackle problems associated with changes in lift & drag in the transonic range. Features like swept back wings, delta wing, fuselage with pointed nose were introduced.

Reference 1.4 summarizes developments up to 1970. For example for fighter airplane the maximum speed increased from 150 kmph in 1914 to about 3500 kmph in 1970. The engine power increased from about 60 kW to a thrust of 30,000 kgf and weight increased from about 600 kgf to about 50,000 kgf.

Some of the subsequent developments are :Supersonic passenger airplane – Concorde in 1971 (Fig 1.6 ).Variable sweep military airplane - low sweep at low speed & high sweep at high speed (Fig 1.7).

Passenger airplanes with upto 450 seats and range of 12000 km were available in early 1970’s (Fig 1.8a).Currently the seating capacity of 650 passengers is available on Airbus A380 (Fig.1.8b)Supercritical airfoils with higher critical Mach number were available in 1970’s .Automatic Landing system was introduced in 1960’s. Fly - by -wire control was introduce in 1984.Bypass engines whose developments started in 1950’s have become high bypass ratio engine and bypass ratio

Features of some special airplanes:

1. Largest Airplane : Russian AN225 (Fig 1.11)Wing span - 88.74 m6 engines each 215 kN thrust.Weight - 508 tons

Winglet at wing tips which were studied in 1970’s are now found on most of the new jet airplanes (Fig.1.9)and also being retrofitted on older airplanes.The use of FRP (Fiber Reinforced Plastics) has increased and components like wings are also being made of FRP (for example LCA –Tejas made by HAL ,Bangalore). Low Radar cross-section – stealth technology introduced in late 1980’s (Fig 1.10).

of 17 has been achieved (Ref.1.2).

2. Airplane with advanced technologies:X-29A airplane (Fig 1.12) has , according to Ref 1.16,Digital flight controlNegative longitudinal static stability (relaxed stability)Closely coupled canard.

Forward swept wingAero- elastically tailored composite wing. Thin supercritical wing, discrete variable camber.

3.Modern Fighters:

Lockheed YF-22 Advanced Tactical Fighter (Fig1.13)

Span : 13.1m; Length : 19.6m; Height : 5.4m ; Wing Area : 77.1m2; Basic Empty weight : 15441 kgf .

Some problem areas in the development of airplane are:

I) Supersonic passenger planes are not as economical as subsonic airplanes.

II) A suitable engine is not available for sustained hypersonic flight .

4. Reusable Airplane:X-38 (Fig 1.14)Length: 8.7 mWingspan: 4.4 mEmpty weight: 7260 kgf.

Fig 1.6 Concorde in flight(Adapted from google.com)

Fig 1.7 Variable sweep TU – 22(Adapted from Ref.1.2 ,p.447)

Fig 1.8a Boeing 747(Adapted from google.com)

Fig 1.8b Airbus A380(From google.com)

Fig.1.9 Airplane with winglets – Boeing Business Jethttp://www.jetadvisors.com/emails/images/

large/Aircraft%20with%20Winglets-230px.jpg)(Adapted from

Fig 1.10 B2 Stealth Bomber(Adapted from http://cdn-

channels.netscape.com/gallery/i/w/war/lg1.jpg)

Fig 1.11 AN225(Adapted from

http://www.flickr.com/photos/67307569@N00/238600919/)

Fig 1.12 X-29 (Adapted from http://www.spacemodel.com/images/A22354-P18-

X-29A.jpg)

Fig 1.13 Lockheed YF-22 Advanced Tactical Fighter(Adapted from yahoosearch.com)

Fig 1.14 Reusable Vehicle(Adapted from Ref.1.2,p.703)

1.6. Course outline

Chapter 2 : Data collection and preliminary three-view drawing

Chapter 3 : Weight estimation.Chapter 4 : Estimation of wing loading and thrust

loadingChapter 5 : Wing Design - Selection of wing parameters Chapter 6 : Fuselage and tail sizingChapter 7 : Special considerations in configuration

lay- out Chapter 8 : Weights and centre of gravity.Chapter 9 : Control Surface design.Chapter 10: Miscellaneous topics.

1.7 References

1.1 Wood K.D. “Technical Aerodynamics” published by author, 1955.

1.2 Jackson, P. (Editor) “Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft 1999-2000” , Jane’s information group ltd., Surrey , UK, 1999.

1.3 Wood K.D. “Aerospace Vehicle Design vol I.& II”Johnson Pub. Co Boulder Colorado 1966.

1.4Lebedinski. A.A. “Aircraft Design –Parametric Studies” Published by I.I.Sc Bangalore 1971.

1.5 Nicolai L “Fundamentals of Aircraft design” Univ. of Dayton Ohio, 1975.

1.6 Kuchemann D “The Aerodynamic Design of Aircraft” Pergamon 1978.

1.7 Torenbeek. E. “Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane

design” Delft University Press 1981. 1.8 Stinton, D” The Design of Airplane”, Granada

Pub.co. England 1983.1.9 Huenecke. K, “Combat Aircraft Design” Air life

Pub. Co. 1987.1.10.Roskam, J “Airplane design Vol. I –VIII” Roskam

aviation and Engg. Corp. Ottawa, Kansas 1989.1.11.Raymer, D.P. ”Aircraft Design a Conceptual

Approach” AIAA` educational series fourth edition 2006.

1.12.Fielding J.P. “Introduction to Aircraft Design”Cambridge Univ. press 1999.

1.13. Jenkinson L. R., Simpkin P. and Rhodes D. “CivilJet Aircraft Design” Arnold 1999.

1.14. Jenkinson L. R., Marchman III J. F. “Aircraft

Design Projects” Butterworth-Heinemann 2003.1.15. McCormick B.W. “Aerodynamics Aeronautics and

Flight Mechanics” second edition , John Willey 1995.

1.16.Nelson R.C “Flight stability & AutomaticControl” second edition McGraw Hill, 1998.

Remark: As additional sources of information , some of the websites are mentioned under the figures. Information about civil jet airplanes and turbofan engines is available on : www.arnoldpublishers.com/aerodata

The following Journals may be consulted for current information on aircraft design:

• Interavia• Flight International.• Aviation week & Space Technology.• Aircraft Engineering• Aeronautical Journal• Journal of aircraft.• Aircraft design.• Aerospace America

1.1 Airplane design is done in three stages viz. project feasibility study preliminary design and design project. Give the aims of these stages and briefly describe the steps in each of them.

1.2 What are the differences between passenger and cargo airplanes from the point of view of design requirements?

1.3 What is the mock-up stage in design process? How this stage can now-a-days be eliminated ?

EXERCISES

1.4 How do Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) reduce the design cycle time ?

1.5 What are the canard tail and conventional tail configurations? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each configuration ?

1.6 Figure E1.1 shows the three views of three medium range jet transport airplanes namely Boeing 737, Airbus-320 and MD- 87.Observe the configurations and point out the similarities and differences. Comment on the advantages / disadvantages of these features.

Fig. E1.1 Configurations of medium range airliners with 100 to 180 seating capacity (Ref.1.2,p.594, 184 and 613)

Boeing MD-87

Airbus- A320

Boeing 737-400 with additional side views of 737-500 (top) and 737-300 (middle)

1.7 Figure E1.2 gives four different conceptual alternatives for design of an anti-submarine warfare airplane (Adapted from Ref.1.11, Chapter 3 ).The key requirements are

(i) payload = 45,000 N,

(ii) loiter for 3 hours at a station 3000 km from base,

(iii) four member crew,

(iv) cruise at M = 0.6.

Identify important features of each alternative and mention advantages and disadvantages.

Fig. E1.2 Four alternatives for anti-submarine warfare airplane(Adapted from Ref.1.11, Chapter 3)

Appendices

Information about Aircraft Design Bureaux of • Boeing Aircraft Company• Airbus Industry• HAL, Bangalore

are given in the following sub-sections.Also see “Concept to flight-IJT” by P. Jayasimha, which gives various stages in design of an Intermediate Jet Trainer(IJT) recently designed and flown by HAL.

Boeing Aircraft Company (Based on: www.boeing.com

andwww.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing)

Appendix 1.1

History •Founded in 1916 in Puget Sound, Washington

•Became a leading producer of commercial and military aircraft

•Undertook a series of strategic mergers and acquisitions to broaden its portfolio that included McDonnell Douglas, the space and defense business of Rockwell Intl., and Hughes Space & Communications, among others

•Today positioned as a broad, balanced and global enterprise defining the future of aerospace

Company’s heritage mirrors the history of flightCompany’s heritage mirrors the history of flight

What We Do Today Design and manufacture commercial jetliners

–Boeing 7-series of airplanes leads the industry

–Offer a broad range of services to passenger and freight carriers

Produce weapons systems and networking technology

–World’s largest designer and manufacturer of military aircraft

–Provide services and support to governments worldwide

Provide satellites and launch vehicles

– World’s largest provider of commercial and military satellites; leading rocket manufacturer; and NASA’s largest contractor

• Integrate large-scale systems; develop network-centric solutions

• Provide financial solutions focused on customer requirements

• Develop advanced technology defining the future of aerospace

Operating Philosophy

Focus on execution; actively seeking growth opportunitiesFocus on execution; actively seeking growth opportunities

Open New Frontiers

Open New Frontiers

Leverage Strengths Into New Products and Services

Leverage Strengths Into New Products and Services

Run Healthy Core BusinessRun Healthy

Core Business

Global Scope

Companies that change and adapt in a rapidly evolving global economy will survive, grow and prosper

Companies that change and adapt in a rapidly evolving global economy will survive, grow and prosper

2005 revenue was $54.8 billion from customers in 145 countries– International sales were more than 30 percent

More than 153,000 employees in 48 states in the U.S. and 70 countries

Nearly 6,450 suppliers in more than 100 countries

Research, design and technology development centers and programs in multiple countries

Manufacturing, services and technology partnerships with companies around the world

One of the largest U.S. exporters

2005 revenue was $54.8 billion from customers in 145 countries– International sales were more than 30 percent

More than 153,000 employees in 48 states in the U.S. and 70 countries

Nearly 6,450 suppliers in more than 100 countries

Research, design and technology development centers and programs in multiple countries

Manufacturing, services and technology partnerships with companies around the world

One of the largest U.S. exporters

60%Approx

60%Approx

Revenue by Business Unit

Year-end 2005

40%Approx40%Approx

Commercial Airplanes

Total = $54.8 billionTotal = $54.8 billion

Integrated Defense SystemsBoeing Capital Corporation

Connexion by BoeingSM

Other

Business Units

Boeing Commercial Airplanes

•Headquartered in Puget Sound, Wash., BCA generated 2005 revenues of $22.65 billion

•Offers a family of airplanes and a broad portfolio of aviation services for passenger and cargo carriers worldwide

•Boeing airplanes represent three quarters of the world’s fleet with nearly 12,000 jetliners in service

•Approximately 70 percent of Boeing commercial airplane sales (by value) go to customers outside of the U.S.

The industry's source for customer-focused solutionsThe industry's source for customer-focused solutions

Integrated Defense Systems •Formed in 2002 with the integration of Boeing’s defense, space, intelligence and communications capabilities into a single unit

•Generated 2005 revenues of $30.8 billion with more than 80,000 employees

•Capabilities include the development and advancement of defense, intelligence, communications and space-based platforms, and an emphasis on network-centric solutions

•Customers include military, commercial and governments worldwide

Inventing the futureInventing the future

Boeing Technology

•Phantom Works•Provides advanced systems and technologies for business units

•Information Technology•Leading IT development that drives common processes and systems across the enterprise

•Intellectual Property Business•Protects and leverages intellectual property through enhanced patent and licensing initiatives

Providing technology leadership across the enterpriseProviding technology leadership across the enterprise

Boeing 707

Boeing 737-758

Boeing 777

Airbus Industry

(Based on: www.airbus.comand

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus)

Appendix 1.2

History

• Airbus Industry began as a consortium of European aviation firms to compete with American companies such as Boeing and McDonnell Douglas. In the 1960s European aircraft manufacturers competed with each other as much as the American giants.

• In September 1967 the British, French and German governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to start development of the 300 seat Airbus A300.

Airbus formed

• Airbus Industry was formally set up in 1970 following an agreement between Aerospatiale (France) and Deutsche Aerospace (Germany) (joined by CASA of Spain in 1971).

• Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready to fly items.

• The name "Airbus" was taken from a non-proprietary term used by the airline industry in the 1960s to refer to a commercial aircraft of a certain size and range, for this term was acceptable to the French linguistically.

Airbus today

• Today Airbus, headquartered in Toulouse, France, produces a comprehensive range of 14 aircraft -renowned for their fly-by-wire technology, commonality and extensive use of composites -and employs 55,000 people worldwide.

• The product line includes the new 555-seat A380, the world's biggest and most advanced passenger aircraft. Airbus also plans to build the A350, a longer-range twin-engine aircraft. The company's 16 manufacturing sites in France, Germany, Spain and the UK are formed into a range of Centers of Excellence covering all aspects of the aircraft design and production process.

Civilian Products• The Airbus product line started with the A300, the

world's first twin-aisle, twin-engined aircraft. A shorter variant of the A300 is known as the A310. Building on its success, Airbus launched the A320 with its innovative fly-by-wire control system. The A320 was a great commercial success. The A318 and A319 are shorter derivatives with some of the latter under construction for the corporate business-jet market (Airbus Corporate Jet). A stretched version is known as the A321 and is proving competitive with later models of the Boeing 737.

• The longer range products, the twin-jet A330 and the four-jet A340, have efficient wings, enhanced by winglets.

Military Products

• Airbus established a separate company, Airbus Military S.A.S., to undertake development and production of a turboprop powered military transport aircraft (the Airbus Military A400M.) The A400M is being developed by several NATO members, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Spain, Turkey, and the UK, as an alternative to the C-130 Hercules.

• Expansion in the military aircraft market will reduce, but not negate, Airbus' exposure to the effects of cyclical downturns in civil aviation.

Airbus' Broughton, U.K. Manufacturing Facility (wing-making factory)

Getafe, Spain Airbus Component production(manufacturing horizontal tail for all Airbus aircraft)

France: Saint Nazaire building(manufacturing of forward and central fuselage for all

Airbus aircraft)

Germany: Hamburg Equipment Hall(Headquarters of cabin and cargo customization, fuselage

integration – structural assembly and equipment installation)

Airbus' Final Assembly building for the A380 is located in Toulouse, France, and is one of the world's largest

of its kind.

Germany: Dresden Test Hangar(test hangar for the operational strength tests on the

Airbus A380)

Airbus' Newest U.S. Engineering Centre, set to open in 2007 at Mobile, Alabama, will help develop the A350's

cabin interior

Airbus A300-600

Airbus A330-300

Airbus A340-600

Airbus A380 Cut-away section

Airbus A350-900

Comparison between different Airbus

aircraft

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)

(Based on: www.hal-india.com

and www. wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Aeronautics)

Appendix 1.3

History

• The history of the Indian Aircraft Industry can be traced to the founding of Hindustan Aircraft Limited at Bangalore in December 1940 in association with the erstwhile princely State of Mysore and late Shri Seth Walchand Hirachand, an Industrialist of extraordinary vision.

• Govt. of India became one of its shareholders in March 1941 and took over the management in 1942.

• Hindustan Aircraft Limited was merged with Aeronautics India Limited and Aircraft Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur to form Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) on 01st October 1964.

HAL today

• Today HAL has got 16 production units and 9 research and design centres spread out in seven different locations in India.

• Its product track record consists of 12 types of aircraft from in house R &D and 13 types by license production.

• HAL has so far produced about 3352 aircraft (which include 11 types of indigenous design), 3583 engines and overhauled over 8141 aircraft and 27267 engines.

HAL today• HAL has engaged & succeeded in number of R & D

programs for both the military and civil aviation sectors.

• Substantial progress has been made in the current projects like Dhruv -Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH), Tejas-Light Combat Aircraft (LCA), Intermediate Jet Trainer (IJT) and various military and civil upgrades.

• HAL has played a significant role for India's space programs in the manufacturing of satellite launch vehicles like PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle), GSLV (Geo Stationary Launch Vehicle), IRS (Indian Remote Satellite) & INSAT (Indian National Satellite).

• HAL has also two joint venture companies, BAeHAL Software Limited and Indo- Russian Aviation Limited (IRAL).

• Apart from the two, other major diversification projects are Industrial Marine Gas turbine and Airport Services.

• HAL's supplies / services are mainly to Indian Defence Services, Coast Guard and Border Security Force.

• Transport aircraft and Helicopters have also been supplied to Airlines as well as State Governments of India.

HAL today

Divisions of HAL1. Accessories Division – Lucknow2. Aerospace Division – Bangalore3. Aircraft Division – Nasik4. Aircraft Division – Bangalore5. Avionics Division – Hyderabad6. Avionics Division – Korwa7. Engine Division – Bangalore8. Engine Division – Koraput9. Foundry and Forge Division – Bangalore10. Helicopter Division – Bangalore11. Industrial & Marine Gas Turbine Division –

Bangalore12. Overhaul Division – Bangalore13. Transport Aircraft Division - Kanpur

Aircraft Division - Nasik• Aircraft Division, Nasik, established in the year

1964 for licence manufacture of miG-21FL aircraft & K-13 Missiles, is located at Ojhar, 24 kilometers from Nasik and approximately 200 kilometers from Mumbai in the state of Maharashtra.

• The division since then manufactured other MiG variants; viz MiG-21M, MiG-21 BIS AND MiG-27 M aircraft. Along with manufacturing, the division also carries out overhaul of the MiG series aircraft.

• It has well qualified and trained manpower in different areas of aviation technology, viz

design and development, manufacture and overhaul of aircraft, accessories and related products.

Assembly and Testing of MiG-27 Main Undercarriage

Assembly of MiG-27M Front Fuselage

MiG-27M Front Fuselage Equipping in Progress

Canopy and Wind shield assembly

Ejection seat assembly

Mig-21 structural overhaul

MiG-27 Aircraft Assembly

Aircraft Division - Bangalore

• Aircraft Division was established in the year 1940. Since inception, the Division has manufactured a variety of Aircraft both under licence as well as indigenously designed and developed.

• Currently, the Division is manufacturing the Jaguar International twin Seater Aircraft under licence from British Aerospace, UK.

• The Division is equipped with modern infrastructure in Plant and Equipment like CAD-CAM Manufacturing Engineering, Quality Assurance and Customer support System with 2121 highly skilled personnel including more than

350 engineers working in a covered area of2,25,000 sq.m.• The Division has so far manufactured over 1,500 aircraft of various types.

ProductsIndigenous designs:

• HT-2• HAL HPT-32 Deepak• HJT-16 Kiran — Mk1 and Mk2• HF-24 Marut — Mk1 and Mk1T• HAL Lakshya — Unmanned Aerial Vehicle• HAL Tejas — Light Combat Aircraft• HAL Dhruv — Advanced Light Helicopter• HAL HJT-36 — Intermediate Jet Trainer

Licensed production:• Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 — M,FL,BIS variants• Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-27 — M variant• BAe Hawk• SEPECAT Jaguar• Aerospatiale Alouette III — HAL Chetak• SA 315 Lama — HAL Cheetah• Dornier Do 228• HAL HS 748 Avro• IAI Heron• Sukhoi Su-30MKI

Appendix 1.4

CONCEPT TO FLIGHT– IJT

CONCEPT TO FLIGHT– INTERMEDIATE JET TRAINER

By

P. JAYASIMHACHIEF DESIGNER – AERODYNAMICS

AIRCRAFT RESEARCH & DESIGN CENTRE

HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITEDBANGALORE -560037, INDIA.

ARDC

PROCESSES

• COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN• ANALYSIS TOOLS – FEM / CFD• MANUFACTURING• GROUND TEST FACILITIES• PROJECT MANAGEMENT• PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT

Year

Prod

uct /

Per

form

ance

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

MANUAL2D

AutoCAD2D

CATIA2D

CATIA V43D

UG / PDM3D

VR / PLM3D

CATIA V5 /PDM3D

APPLICATION OF CAD IN ARDC

E-Maintenance

ERP

USED FOR IJT

USED FOR LCA NAVY

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

IN HOUSE SOFTWARE FOR PLOTTER - UNIVAC

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

LEADING TO CONCURRENT ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONIC MOCK UP

DESIGNING IN 3D SOLID MODELLING

LANDING GEAR KINEMATICS

MAIN GEAR

NOSE GEAR

USE OF KINEMATICS

COCKPIT LAYOUT THROUGH CAD

DISPLAY LAYOUTS THRO’ CAD

WORK FLOW FOR DRAWING RELEASE

DRAWINGS SENT THROUGH PRODUCT DATA MANAGER ON A NET-WORKED ENVIRONMENT. NO PHYSICAL MOVEMENT OF DRAWINGS.

MODEL / DRAWING

PREPARATION

STRESS CLEARANCE

FATIGUE CLEARANCE

MATERIALS CLEARANCE

DESIGN QUALITY APPROVAL &

RELEASE DYNAMICS

CLEARANCE

READY FOR MANUFACTURING

ANALYSIS TOOLS - FEM

• In the initial days, used for complex problems only.

• FEM in-house software for wing and fuselage analysis in the late 70’s and 80’s.

• ELFINI introduced for LCA in the mid 80’s.

• NASTRAN used in parallel.

• CSM NASTRAN used extensively for IJT in the late 90’s.

• Now FEM used for all analysis, including effect of manufacturing deviations!

STRESS ANALYSIS OF IJT THROUGH NASTRAN

NO. OF ELEMENTS 24727

NO. OF NODES 17399

NO. OF DEGREE OF FREEDOM 89116

TYPE OF ELEMENTS USED :

a) ROD

b) SHEAR PANEL

c) MEMBRANE

d) BAR

e) SHELL

ANALYSIS TOOLS - FEM

ANALYSIS TOOLS - CFD

• From being used for benign ( simplified geometry, low angle of attack and incompressible flow ) problems in the early days, today it can be used for complex problems such as intake-airframe matching at transonic speeds, high angle of attack aerodynamic characteristics etc.

• Some examples are given in the next slides.

• A very useful complement to Wind Tunnel.

ANALYSIS TOOLS - CFD

AERODYNAMICS AT HIGH AOA - POST STALL

CONDITIONS

Comparison of CN

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

-20 0 20 40 60 80 100

Angle of Attack

CN Wind Tunnel

CFXComparison of Cm

-1

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

-20 0 20 40 60 80 100

Angle of Attack

Cm Wind Tunnel

CFX Comparison of Cx

-0.2

-0.15

-0.1

-0.05

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0 20 40 60 80 100

Angle of attack

CX CFX

Wind Tunnel

α = 20º

α = 60º

WIND TUNNEL MODEL

CFDSYSTEM LAYOUT

Numerical Master Geometry

STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

CONCURRENT DESIGN & PRODUCTION PROCESS

TOOLING

(EXTERNAL SHAPE FINALISED)

TOOL DESIGN THROUGH CONCURRENT ENGINEERING

ICY MEDIA FOR FRONT FUSELAGE

FRONT FUSELAGE JIG

EXPLOITATION OF CAD FOR ASSEMBLY

FUSELAGE BUILD SEQUENCE

ENABLES EASY CONCEPTUALISATION AND CAPTURE OF INTERFERENCE & ACCESS PROBLEMS

WING TOP SKIN MODEL

BEFORE MACHINING

AFTER MACHINING

PART MANUFACTURING THRO’ NC MACHINING

Front & Rear Fuselage JIGS under Preparation – Dec 01

Assembly starts in Front Fuselage JIG – 31 Dec 01

Front Fuselage Assembly under progress – Apr 02

Front Fuselage Assembly nearing completion - May 02

Rear Fuselage Assembly nearing completion- Jul 02

Front & Rear Fuselage in Coupling JIG – Sep 02

Equipping & Erection activity in progress – Oct 02

MOVEMENT TO TESTING & SERVICING HANGAR 26 Dec 02

CONTINUITY & MEGGER TESTS & SYSTEM INTEGRATION TESTS – Jan 2003

GROUND VIBRATION TESTS

Low speed wind tunnel tests on 1:8 scale model

High speed wind tunnel tests on 1:15 scale model

Air intake Wind tunnel tests on 1:4 scale model

WIND TUNNEL TESTS

Drop Test of Main Landing Gear

MOVIE CLIP

IRON BIRD

Half Wing Test Specimen in Test Rig

EGRESS TEST

MOVIE CLIP

EJECTION SEAT TRIALS

MOVIE CLIP

FULL AIRCRAFT FATIGUE TEST

FLIGHT TEST CENTRE

• Real time monitoring has enabled quick changes to be made to flight test points to increase efficiency and improve the safety during flight tests.

• Availability of digital data soon after flight has enabled quick data analysis for further planning of tests.

• Better understanding of flight characteristics as designers can correctly interpret Pilot comments and observations.

• With availability of data from start to stop, a number of test points can be packaged and most often data from one test can be utilised by others.

14 GROUND RUNS, 4 LSTT & 2 HSTT BEFORE FIRST FLIGHT

ENGINE GROUND RUN & LOW SPEED TAXI TRIALS

(FEB 2003)

FLIGHT TESTING OF PT 001–“PROOF OF THE AIRCRAFT IS IN ITS FLYING”

07 MAR 2003

26 MAR 2004

IJTIJTControls/Handling

Stalls

SpinsSpinTest

SpinChute

L/GShimmy

Turning

Anti Skid FCS

Stick

BallBearings

Envelope

Canopy Flutter

Gr. Test

AvionicsNightFlying

RTIFF

AMLCDIASNew

AMLCD

EMI/EMC

GPS

FGEU

Switch & Levers

SSCDR

Fuel System

Throttle

Vent Valve

PressureRefueling

HydraulicsSupply

Pressure Gauge

Triple Pressure

Gauge

PRVSetting

SEATSeatPadPSP

Weapons

Carriage Flight Tests

JettisonInstallation

ECSTank

Pressure switch

CAU/PHUOutlet temp.

Water in Cockpit

Aileron Elevator

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

• Dynamic decision making and focused approach required to Project Management.

• Project Management is now getting formalised in leading industries, with formal procedures and processes that also include identification of people responsible for each.

• Review technique to be evolved innovatively and the periodicity made flexible as required.

• Review format should be crisp and objective.• Project Team concept for establishing ownership

and identification with the project.• Involvement of all members of the team necessary

for success.

• Crack teams to be made for trouble shooting and problem fixing.

FIRST FLIGHT

Documentation & CEMILAC clearance

Engine run & Taxi Trials

GVT

Qualification Testing of LRUs

- Jacks

Fabrication of Exhaust cones

System ChecksRig

-

- Electrical - Fuel

Aircraft – 40 no

FTI Installation & itsCalibration

Cockpit Pressurisation

Suiting of doors & hatches / Covers

Equipping & Erection- Hydraulics, Fuel, ECS,

LSS, Landing Gear- Air data / FCS- Electrical / Avionics,

Instruments etc..- Connector Finalisation

Structural testing- Control

Surface-Rods-Canopyo

ProofoGES

Pre Sys. Integration Checks

Throttle Rigging, FCS RiggingPressure Leak ChecksSlushing, FlushingContinuity & megger

Cockpit EquippingSeat, PanelsThrottle, Pedals MDC, Control Stick

Throttle on mock up

GSEFOD Checks

Wt. & CG Checks

Fabrication & ATP of Rigs

SPECIFIC ACTIVITY REVIEW – “YK” ELLIPSE TECHNIQUE

PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT

• Support expected from manufacturer for his products over its entire life.

• Involvement of the manufacturer in solving problems, providing spares and issuance of servicing details as and when required.

• Cost optimization not just on fly-away costs, but on life cycle costs.

• On-condition maintenance philosophy requires monitoring of product usage closely.

• Customer field requirements to be catered for in the early phase of design itself, thus reducing efforts and costs on retro modifications etc.

IJTPre

Design

Fabrication

Pre-design

Fabrication

Assembly Equipping

Ground Tests

Telemetry

Flight Test

Induction into (IAF)

Certifica tion

MRO

CBT

DIGITAL DOC.

TOOLS,TESTERS,

GSE

LogisticSupport

Technical Call Centre

Health Monitoring/HUMS

Flight / Maint.

Simulator

Fleet Up gradation

PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT

e-ENABLED MAINTENANCE

`

SERVER

ATA 100 & I-SPEC 2200

EXPLODED VIEWS, CUT AWAY

VIDEOS

ANIMATIONS

REVISIONS

FEATURES

ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTATION

SOPHISTICATED SGML HYPER

LINKS

RICH NAVIGATION ACROSS

CONTENTS

LINK WITH OTHER SOFTWARES

MANUALS ON WEB & CD ROM

FACILITIES

DIAGNOSTICS & TRACKING

ALERTS & NOTIFICATIONS

SCALABILITY

FLEXIBLE WORK FLOW

INTERFACE TO MANUFACTURER, IAF

PACKAGE & OPERATING BASES

DAILY INSPECTIONS

PERIODICAL INSPECTIONS

SNAG INPUTS &RECTIFICATION

COMPONENT LIFE MONITORING

A/C LOG, ON LINE UPDATION

A/C LIMITATIONS, CONCESSIONS &

MODIFICATIONS

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT

FEATURES

FACILITIES

COMPUTER BASED TRAINING

NETWORK ADAPTIVE

INTERACTIVE LEARNING SYSTEMS

INDIVIDUAL & GROUP LEARNING

TROUBLE SHOOTING

ON THE JOB TRAINING

FEATURES

LINKS TO MANUALS

INTERACTIVE INBOARDS

COCKPIT LAYOUT & DISPLAYS

NAVIGATION

ANIMATION

SIMULATION

FACILITIES

HIGH SPEED WIDE AREA NET WORKING

FACILITY TO TRACK

FACILITY TO MAINTAIN RECORDS AT OTHER BASES

DATA INTEGRITY (FACILITY TO UPDATE LATEST INFO)

PROVISION FOR SECURITY CONTROLS

AUDIT TRAIL

AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONISATION

PUBLISHING

MAINTENANCE NET WORKING

FEATURES

IPMA - AWARD

IJT HAS WON INTERNATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT AWARD FOR 2005 FOR EXCELLENCE IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT