CLIMATE CHANGE

CLIMATE CHANGE

KAUFUI VINCENT WONG

MOMENTUM PRESS, LLC, NEW YORK

Climate Change

Copyright © Momentum Press®, LLC, 2016.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means— electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other—except for brief quotations, not to exceed 400 words, without the prior permission of the publisher.

First published by Momentum Press®, LLC222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017www.momentumpress.net

ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-847-3 (print)ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-848-0 (e-book)

Momentum Press Environmental Engineering Collection

Collection ISSN: 2375-3625 (print)Collection ISSN: 2375-3633 (electronic)

Cover and interior design by Exeter Premedia Services Private Ltd., Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

AbstrAct

Climate Change is a collection of a number of papers as well as chapters about the science of the subject. This collection is meant to inflame and excite conversation among engineers, scientists, and society at large. It would serve as a catalyst for a three-credit course, as a relatively new engineering subject, for both engineering and nonengineering university students. As university education develops to better prepare future leaders to appreciate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, engineering courses for a mix of engineering and nonengineering majors are essential and so is the requirement for worthy textbooks. This mono-graph intends to be one of the useful tools available on this timely topic. The wide range of topics includes climate change and theories, the second law of thermodynamics, the global greenhouse effect, anthropogenic heat release, evidence around us owing to environmental change, sea level rise, jungles and forests, heat islands, atmospheric carbon dioxide removal via technology, nanotechnology, other innovations in response to climate change, and the energy–water–food nexus.

KEYWORDS

air, anthropogenic heat release, carbon dioxide, energy-water-food nexus, environment, greenhouse effect, heat islands, jungles, nanotechnology, sea level rise, sun, technology, thermodynamics, water, weather

contents

List of figures xiiiList of tabLes xvacknowLedgments xvii

1 introduction 1

2 cLimate change and theories 52.1 Introduction 52.2 Milankovitch Theory 62.3 Sunspot Cycle 72.4 Sea Surface Temperature and Pressure Oscillations

in the Pacific Ocean 102.5 Sea Surface Temperature and Pressure Oscillations

in the Atlantic Ocean 152.6 Discussion and Conclusion 20References 21

3 the second Law of thermodynamics and heat discharge to the environment by human activities 273.1 Background 273.2 Discussion and Proof 293.3 Conclusion 31References 31

4 greenhouse effect and cLimate change 334.1 Background 334.2 Understanding Electromagnetic Radiation 334.3 Planck’s Law and Radiated Energy 364.4 Greenhouse Effect 38

viii • COntEntS

4.5 Characteristics of a Greenhouse Gas 394.6 Evidence of Global Climate Changes 41References 43

5 anthropogenic heat reLease into the environment 455.1 Introduction and Statement 455.2 Hypothesis of Method and the Method 465.3 Heat Based on World Energy Consumption 475.4 Heat From Net Electricity Generation 495.5 Heat From Oil Refineries 515.6 Heat From Garbage Incineration 545.7 World Output of Carbon Dioxide 555.8 Heat From Formation of Sulfur Dioxide From

Combustion 555.9 Heat From Animal Bodies 555.10 Discussion and Conclusion 575.11 Nomenclature 58References 58

6 cLimate change and aLL evidences of gLobaL warming 616.1 Introduction 616.2 Mean Temperature Changes 626.3 Arctic Ice Caps 636.4 Wildlife and Extinction 656.5 Weather Patterns 686.6 Solutions 71References 72

7 mitigation and adaptation responses to sea LeveL rise 757.1 Introduction 757.2 Literature About Rising Seas 757.3 Mitigation Responses 777.4 Adaptation Responses 797.5 Discussion and Conclusion 80References 81

COntEntS • ix

8 freshwater discharges into the oceans 838.1 Background 838.2 Lower and Higher Latitudes 858.3 Groundwater Discharge and Anthropogenic

Contributions 87References 90

9 weaLth of the oceans 919.1 Introduction 919.2 Current Status 919.3 Literature Survey 929.4 Research and Development 939.5 Discussion and Conclusion 95References 96

10 forests and JungLes brake cLimate change 9910.1 Photosynthesis 9910.2 Costa Rica 10010.3 Nicaragua 10110.4 Haiti 10110.5 The Amazon Jungle 10210.6 Indonesia 10210.7 Discussion and Conclusion 103References 104

11 atmospheric carbon dioxide removaL via technoLogy 10711.1 Introduction 10711.2 Carbon Dioxide Removal 11011.3 Biochar 11011.4 Artificial Trees 11211.5 Enhanced Weathering 11311.6 Bio-Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage 11511.7 Carbon Dioxide Capture “Trapping” Procedures 11611.8 Carbon Dioxide Sequestration Procedures 11711.9 Media for Biological Systems 118

x • COntEntS

11.10 Production of Biofuel 11911.11 Discussion and Conclusion 121References 122

12 use of sateLLite images for observationaL and Quantitative anaLysis of urban heat isLands around the worLd 12712.1 Introduction 12712.2 Urban Heat Island Effect 12812.3 Landsat 12912.4 Image Selection 13212.5 Thermal Images 13212.6 Quantitative Differentiation 13512.7 Discussion and Conclusion 138References 139Thermal Images of Cities Analyzed 143

Urban-Rural Differential Images of Cities Analyzed 147

13 cLimate change aggravates the energy−water−food nexus 15113.1 Introduction 15113.2 Energy–Water–Food Nexus 15213.3 The Himalayas 15313.4 The Effect of Climate Change on Glaciers 15513.5 The Effect of Climate Change on the Indus River 15813.6 The Effect of Climate Change on the South Asian

Monsoons 16213.7 Recommendations to Enhance Energy, Water,

Food Security 16313.8 Discussion and Conclusion 164References 165

14 innovations reLated to hydroLogy in response to cLimate change—a review 16914.1 Introduction 16914.2 Agricultural Demands 17014.3 Solar Drip Irrigation 171

COntEntS • xi

14.4 Wastewater Reuse 17114.5 Optimal Resource Management 17214.6 Nanotechnology 17414.7 Conventional Wastewater Treatment 17514.8 Membrane Bioreactors 17614.9 Biofilters 17814.10 Groundwater 17814.11 Comparison of MBRs and AS Plants 17914.12 Discussion and Conclusion 180References 180

15 a baLanced view 183

index 187

List of figures

Figure 2.1. Sunspot numbers 2008 to 2015 [14]. 10Figure 2.2. Current Sunspot cycles versus Dalton Minimum [14]. 10Figure 2.3. ONI and SOI 1960 to 2015 [23, 24]. 13Figure 2.4. PDO index and ONI 1950 to 2015 [23, 31]. 15Figure 2.5. AO index 1995 to 2015 [39]. 17Figure 2.6. NAO index 2001 to 2015 [44]. 18Figure 2.7. AMO index 1948 to 2015 [50]. 19Figure 2.8. Correlation between all climate cycles. 20Figure 4.1. Plot of radiance versus wavelength (axis at top) and

corresponding wave number (axis at bottom). 39Figure 4.2. Cumulative annual global carbon dioxide emissions. 42Figure 5.1. The global energy consumption [4]. 46Figure 5.2. Energy conversion [14]. 49Figure 5.3. Oil refining process [24]. 54Figure 5.4. Caloric intake necessary to maintain the human body. 56Figure 6.1. 10-year average (2000 to 2009) global mean

temperature anomaly relative to 1951 to 1980 mean [2]. 63Figure 6.2. Polar ice cap in 2003 compared to 1979 [4]. 64Figure 6.3. Species richness of native rainforest vertebrates at

various temperature scenarios [8]. 67Figure 6.4. Regions vulnerable to coastal flooding [12]. 70Figure 12.1. The temperature image of Seoul, South Korea, on the

left, along with the corresponding true color image, on the right. The units of the temperature scale are in degrees Fahrenheit. 133

Figure 12.2. The temperature image of Tokyo, Japan, on the left, along with the corresponding true color image, on the right. The units of the temperature scale are in degrees Fahrenheit. 134

xiv • LiSt Of figuRES

Figure 12.3. The temperature image of South Florida, United States, on the left, along with the corresponding true color image, on the right. The units of the temperature scale are in degrees Fahrenheit. 134

Figure 12.4. The true color image of South Florida, Florida, United States. The urban area is shaded in red, while the surrounding rural area is shaded in green. 136

Figure 12.5. The true color image of Chicago, Illinois, United States. The urban area is shaded in red, while the surrounding rural area is shaded in green. 137

Figure 13.1. A diagram depicting the energy–water–food nexus [6]. 153

Figure 13.2. Depiction of the Indus River (dark line) and the basin area (dark area), with respect to the countries in South Asia [29]. 161

List of tAbLes

Table 4.1. Various greenhouse gases and the range of their impact on the greenhouse effect [9] 41

Table 5.1. The data for fossils fuel and biofuel consumption 48

Table 5.2. The data for the actual world energy consumption from 2005 to 2012 [15] 49

Table 5.3. Data and calculation of combustion 50

Table 5.4. Total electricity net generation 52

Table 5.5. Power produced by the top 10 nuclear-power-producing nations 53

Table 5.6. World refining capacity in thousand barrels per day [23] 53

Table 8.1. Mean annual freshwater discharge into the Arctic Ocean for the years 1921 to 2000 [3] 86

Table 8.2. Variations in air temperature, precipitation, and calculated runoff in the Arctic river basins from 1936 till 1996, obtained via a straight-line relationship 88

Table 11.1. Options in the five stages of microalgae production and product processing 121

Table 12.1. Temperature differences between the urban and rural areas of cities 137

Table 14.1. Percentage of collected wastewater treated 173

Table 14.2. Percentage reduction of TSSs, COD, and total nitrogen (tn) 176

Table 14.3. Percentage reduction of biological oxygen demand (BOD), COD, ammonia-nitrogen, and turbidity 177

xvi • LiSt Of tabLES

Table 14.4. g/ml of BOD, COD, ammonia-nitrogen and TSS in inflow streams 177

Table 14.5. Percentage reduction of TSS, COD, ammonium 179

AcknowLedgments

The kind assistance of all contributing authors is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks go to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and Bentham Science, who published some of the chapters separately at different times as papers. Thanks also goes to the publisher, Joel Stein.

CHaPtER 1

introduction

This is the introductory material to a monograph on Climate Change. More than in any other developed country in the world, the phenomena happening throughout the globe, and documented by the Intergovernmen-tal Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a body under the patronage of the United Nations, have been denied by many in the United States.

After graduation from Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, with a PhD in mechanical engineering, I obtained a position as assistant professor at the University of Miami in 1979, and started research in an environmental topic immediately. I also became a member of the American Geophysical Union (AGU) in 1980 and continue to be a life member of the respected institution. Even though I personally did not per-form climate change research in the 1980s, I kept up with the AGU weekly newsletter, which did include articles about climate change, starting at least from this early date. Hence, when the debate about climate change heated up in the United States in recent years, it was natural for me to fall in line more with one group owing to scientific evidence rather than the other.

As a precaution to prevent the current monograph from being biased, many of the chapters of the book are published papers. Academic journal papers are peer-reviewed and have any partiality removed from the text. The many and varied reviewers require that. Six of the chapters in this book are academic papers already published elsewhere.

The book starts with this Introduction, followed by the theories of climate change, in Chapter 2. This background information allows the critical thinking reader to evaluate whether the theories tell us anything real about climate change, and whether any of their predictive capabilities will be helpful or not. The third chapter is about the Second Law of Ther-modynamics, and how this law essentially tells us that all human activities are eventually dissipated as heat into the global environment.

2 •  CLiMatE CHangE

The fourth chapter explains the greenhouse effect based on the molec-ular theory of matter. Quantitative tabulation and discussion of all the major heat contributions from human activities are presented in the next chapter. Cattle and other livestock are considered as sourced by humans. Chapter 5 is a reproduction of a journal paper published in the December 2012 issue of the American Society of Mechanical Engineer’s (ASME) Journal of Energy Resources Technology. Chapter 6, by an invited author, is an interesting account of the various phenomena recognizable as a con-sequence of climate change.

Sea level rise is one of the many consequences of climate change, as documented by the IPCC. The seventh chapter is a discussion about the mitigation and adaptation responses to sea level rise. The Netherlands and Singapore have taken exemplary steps. Even the local authorities in South Florida, United States have carried out initial steps toward meeting this challenge.

Chapter 7 is a reproduction of an academic journal article published in June 2015 in the Open Hydrology Journal, Bentham Science Open. Chapter 8 is about freshwater discharges into the oceans. Nature’s reser-voirs of freshwater are the ice glaciers in the two Polar regions, and the Third Pole, the Himalayas. When these reservoirs of freshwater melt, what could be done has to be planned and engineered in place. If the freshwater escapes unchecked into the salty sea, fresh water reserves are going to be lost. In Chapter 9, the wealth of the oceans is discussed. In the scenario of ever-increasing human population and diminishing natural resources, the oceans remain as a relatively untapped resource. This chapter is also a reproduction of an academic journal article published in June 2015 in the Open Hydrology Journal, Bentham Science Open.

The tenth chapter is an ode to forests and jungles, and explains their importance and role in the health of the environment. Chapter 11 details the various engineering processes and systems that are being employed and studied for abatement of atmospheric carbon dioxide. There is a review and discussion of technologies, including new ones, effective ones as well as not so effective ones. Chapter 12 deals with the use of satellite images for observational and quantitative analysis of urban heat islands around the world. “Heat islands” are urban areas all over the world, for example, Miami, Florida, which become significantly hotter than the surrounding countryside in the summer because of all the waste heat discharged by the air-conditioners. Long before there was “ climate change” recognition, ordinary people knew that cities were warmer than the countryside. A simple and innovative way to confirm that such a heat island does exist at any one time for any big city, so that the government

intRODuCtiOn •  3

may warn the public to save lives, for example, by reducing the mortality rate among the elderly. Enough details are given to carry out this analysis by local municipal authorities. This chapter is a reproduction of a juried conference paper presented at the International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition (IMECE), held in Houston, Texas, in November 2012. This annual congress is run by the ASME.

Chapter 13 is about how climate change aggravates the energy–water–food nexus. Because of extreme weather conditions and calamities caused by weather, the water–food nexus rears its ugly head as problems including food shortages. The energy connection in the energy–water–food nexus is a more permanent one produced by the fact that about 90 percent of the world’s electric power is being generated via the clas-sical thermodynamic Rankine cycle that requires much waste heat to be removed by water (and more recently by air). A brief historical view is also presented about what happened in the Indus River valley of India and Pakistan. This chapter is a reproduction of a juried conference paper pre-sented at the ASME IMECE 2014 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

The fourteenth chapter is regarding innovations related to hydrology in response to climate change. This is the third academic journal article published in June 2015 in the Open Hydrology Journal, Bentham Science Open. The last, but hardly the least, chapter is to urge all students and the public in general to keep an open mind, and listen to all the information presented, and critically evaluate whether climate change is a happening phenomenon.

index

AActivated sludge (AS), 176, 179Adaptation responses, sea level

rise, 79–80Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 99Agricultural demands, 170–171AGU. See American Geophysical

UnionAir scouring, 176Amazon jungle, 102American Geophysical Union

(AGU), 1American Society of Mechanical

Engineers (ASME), 2AMO. See Atlantic Multidecadal

OscillationAmphibians, 66Anaerobic membrane bioreactor

(AnMBR), 176, 178AnMBR. See Anaerobic

membrane bioreactorAnthropogenic heat generation,

127, 128Anthropogenic heat release

animal bodies, 55–57carbon dioxide output, 55electricity generation, 49, 51–53garbage incineration, 54global energy consumption, 45–46method, 46–47oil refineries, 51, 53–54outcomes, 57–58sulfur dioxide, 55

world energy consumptioncombustion, 47, 50energy conversion, 47, 49fossils fuel and biofuel

consumption, 47–48AO. See Arctic OscillationAquaculture projects, 93Arctic ice caps, 63–65Arctic Ocean Basin, 85–86Arctic Oscillation (AO), 15–17Artificial trees, 112–113AS. See Activated sludgeASME. See American Society of

Mechanical EngineersAtlantic Multidecadal Oscillation

(AMO), 18–19Atlantic Ocean

Arctic Oscillation (AO), 15–17Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation

(AMO), 18–19North Atlantic Oscillation

(NAO), 17–18Atmospheric CDR via technology.

See Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies

ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate

BBathymetry, 92BCM. See Biological carbon

mitigationBECCS. See Bio-energy with

carbon capture and storage

188 • inDEX

Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), 109, 115–116

Biochar, 110–112Biofilters, 178Biofuel, 79–80Biofuel consumption, 47–48Biofuel production

factors, 119photobioreactors, 119–120stages, 120–121

Biological carbon mitigation (BCM), 118–119

Biological oxygen demand (BOD), 177

Biorecro, 116Black carbon, 111Blanket effect, 62BOD. See Biological oxygen

demandBPBR. See Bubble column

photobioreactorBubble column photobioreactor

(BPBR), 119, 120

CCarbon dioxide, 55Carbon dioxide emissions, 42–43Carbon dioxide removal (CDR)

technologiesartificial trees, 112–113BCM, 118–119BECCS, 115–116biochar, 110–112biofuel production

factors, 119photobioreactors, 119–120stages, 120–121

capture or trapping procedures, 116–117

enhanced weathering, 113–115IPCC, 107–108Kyoto Protocol, 108mitigation procedures, 109outcomes, 121–122

process, 110ReMIND, 109sequestration procedures,

117–118Carbon emission laws, 72Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 174,

175CDR. See Carbon dioxide removal

technologiesCetacea, 92Chemical oxygen demand (COD),

172, 177Climate change

AGU, 1anthropogenic heat release (see

Anthropogenic heat release)balanced view, 183–185CDR (see Carbon dioxide

removal (CDR) technologies)energy–water–food nexus, 3 (see

Energy–water–food nexus)forests and jungles, 2 (see also

Forests and jungles)freshwater discharges, 2 (see

also Freshwater discharges)global warming (see Global

warming)greenhouse effect, 2 (see also

Greenhouse effect)heat islands, 2–3hydrology innovations (see

Hydrology)IPCC, 1oceans, 2 (see also Oceans)sea level rise, 2 (see also Sea

level rise)second law of thermodynamics

and heat dischargeentropy definition, 27–29heat engine system, 29–31refrigerator/heat pump

system, 29–30theories

Atlantic Ocean (see Atlantic Ocean)

inDEX • 189

background, 1fluctuations in, 5historical concurrent effects,

20–21Milankovitch theory, 6–7natural cycles, types, 5–6organizations, 5Pacific Ocean (see Pacific

Ocean)sunspot cycle (see Sunspot

cycle)UHI (see Urban heat island)

CNTs. See Carbon nanotubesCo-firing, 115–116Coastal flooding, 70–71COD. See Chemical oxygen

demandConventional wastewater

treatment, 175–176Costa Rica, 100–101Costa Rican Ministry of the

Environment (MINAE), 100

DDeforestation, 103–104Desalination, 92–94Disinfectants, 175Droughts, 69

EECMWF. See European Centre

for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts

EIA. See Energy Information Agency

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

definition, 10ONI and SOI, 12–13Southern Oscillation, 11warm pool, 11–12

El-Qalaa basin, 172Electromagnetic radiation

Maxwell’s equations, 34reflection coefficient, 35–36

s-polarized and p-polarized light, 34–35

transmission coefficient, 35Energy Information Agency (EIA),

47Energy–water–food nexus

glaciersArctic, 157greenhouse gas emission and

global temperature, 158Himalayas, 155ice-albedo feedback effect,

156–157mass balance measurements,

157mechanics, 155–156

Harappan civilization, 151–152Himalayas, 153–155Indus River

change in precipitation, 159crops cultivated, 161–162depiction, 161food production, 162freshwater scarcity, 160–161glaciers melting estimation,

158–159riparian forest loss, 160

outcomes, 164–165recommendations, 163–164schematic representation,

152–153South Asian monsoons, 162–163

ENSO. See El Niño Southern Oscillation

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 128

European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), 84

FFlat plate photobioreactor (FPBR),

119, 120FONAFIFO. See National Forestry

Financial Fund

190 • inDEX

Forests and junglesAmazon jungle, 102Costa Rica, 100–101deforestation, 103–104fossil fuels combustion, 104Haiti, 101–102Indonesia, 102–103Nicaragua, 101photosynthesis, 99–100reforestation, 104

Fossil fuels combustion, 104Fossils fuel consumption, 47–48FPBR. See Flat plate

photobioreactorFree Water Surface (FWS),

175–176Freshwater discharges

Arctic Ocean basin, 85–86fluctuations and atmospheric

driving parameters, 87–89groundwater discharge and

anthropogenic contributions, 87, 90

land–ocean water cycle, 83RTM, 83–84streamflow fluctuations, 84–85

FWS. See Free Water Surface

GGarbage incineration, 54Genetically modified (GM)

animals, 91Glaciers

Arctic, 157greenhouse gas emission and

global temperature, 158Himalayas, 155ice-albedo feedback effect,

156–157mass balance measurements, 157mechanics, 155–156

Global energy consumption, 45–46Global warming

Arctic ice caps, 63–65carbon emission laws, 72description, 61–62

green-e-certified energy suppliers, 72

hydroelectric power, 71–72mean temperature changes,

62–63renewable energy sources, 72solar power, 71weather patterns

coastal flooding, 70–71droughts, 69modeling of, 69North Atlantic hurricane

record, 68–69sea level rising factors, 70

wild life and extinctionamphibians, 66native rainforest vertebrates,

66–68polar bears, 65

wind power, 71GM. See Genetically modified

animalsGreen-e-certified energy suppliers,

72Greenhouse effect

causes, 33electromagnetic radiation

Maxwell’s equations, 34reflection and transmission

coefficient, 35–36s-polarized and p-polarized

light, 34–35global climate changes evidences

annual global carbon dioxide emissions, 42–43

gases and effects, 41–42National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 41

Third Pole, 43greenhouse gas characteristics,

39–40Planck’s law and radiated energy

earth theoretical mean temperature, 37

power radiation equations, 36

inDEX • 191

Rayleigh–Jeans law, 37Wien displacement law, 38

radiance vs. wavelength, 38–39Greenpeace, 103Groundwater, 178–179Groundwater discharge and

anthropogenic contributions, 87, 90

HHaiti, 101–102Harappan civilization, 151–152Heat engine system, 29–31Heat pump system, 29–30High-precision altimeter satellites,

69Himalayas, 153–155Hydraulic turbines, 94Hydrodynamic trapping, 116–117Hydroelectric power, 71–72Hydrology

agricultural demands, 170–171biofilters, 178conventional wastewater

treatment, 175–176groundwater, 178–179MBRs (see Membrane

bioreactors)nanotechnology, 174–175optimal resource management,

172–174outcomes, 180solar drip irrigation, 171wastewater reuse, 171–173

Hydrothermal vents, 94

IIce-albedo feedback effect,

156–157IMECE. See International

Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition

Impervious Surface Area, 135Indonesia, 102–103Indus River

change in precipitation, 159

crops cultivated, 161–162depiction, 161food production, 162freshwater scarcity, 160–161glaciers melting estimation,

158–159riparian forest loss, 160

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1, 75–76, 107–108, 165

International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition (IMECE), 3

IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

JJungles. See Forests and jungles

KKyoto Protocol, 108

LLackner’s tree, 113Land skin temperature (LST), 129Land–ocean water cycle, 83Landsat

emissivity values, 131Landsat 5 and Landsat 7, 129spectral radiance, 130–131temperature values, 131–132thermal infrared portion,

129–130LST. See Land skin temperature

MMan-made engineering systems,

29–31Mangroves, 80Mariana trench, 93Maxwell’s equations, 34MBRs. See Membrane bioreactorsMembrane bioreactors (MBRs)

air scouring, 176AnMBR, 178

192 • inDEX

BOD, COD, ammonia-nitrogen and turbidity reduction, 177

AS plants vs., 179types, 176

MENA. See Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA)

MicroalgaeBCM, 118–119biofuel production, 120–121

Mid-Atlantic ridge, 93Mid-Indian ridge, 93Middle East and Northern Africa

(MENA), 169–170wastewater reuse, 172, 173

Milankovitch theory, 6–7MINAE. See Costa Rican Ministry

of the EnvironmentMineral trapping, 117Mitigation responses, sea level rise

digital software packages, 79model simulation and analysis,

78–79municipal solid waste use in,

77–78offshore barrier islands, 78reservoir placement, 77sea walls or barriers, 77

Municipal solid waste, 77–78

NNADPH. See Nicotinamide

adenine dinucleotide phosphateNano-Ag, 175Nanoabsorbers, 174Nanotechnology, 174–175NAO. See North Atlantic

OscillationNational Centers for

Environmental Prediction-National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP-NCAR), 84

National Forestry Financial Fund (FONAFIFO), 100

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 41

Native rainforest vertebrates, 66–68

NCEP-NCAR. See National Centers for Environmental Prediction-National Center for Atmospheric Research

Nicaragua, 101Nicaragua Canal, 90Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

phosphate (NADPH), 99NOAA. See National Oceanic and

Atmospheric AdministrationNormalized Difference Vegetation

Index, 135North Atlantic hurricane record,

68–69North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO),

17–18

OOcean Thermal Energy

Conversion (OTEC), 93Oceanic Niño Index (ONI), 12–13Oceans

climate change and global warming, 95

current status, 91–92freshwater discharges

Arctic Ocean basin, 85–86fluctuations and atmospheric

driving parameters, 87–89groundwater discharge

and anthropogenic contributions, 87, 90

land–ocean water cycle, 83RTM, 83–84streamflow fluctuations,

84–85literature survey, 92–93research and development

aquaculture projects, 93desalination, 93–94electricity generation, 94hydrothermal vents, 94trenches and ridges, 93

underwater built environments, 95

inDEX • 193

USFDA, 91Offshore barrier islands, 78Oil refineries, 51, 53–54Olivine weathers, 114–115ONI. See Oceanic Niño IndexOpen Hydrology Journal, 2Open ponds (OPs), 119–120OPs. See Open pondsOptimal resource management,

172–174OTEC. See Ocean Thermal Energy

Conversion

PP-polarized light, 34–35Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO),

13–15Pacific Ocean

ENSOdefinition, 10ONI and SOI, 12–13Southern Oscillation, 11warm pool, 11–12

PDO, 13–15Pakistan’s Aquastat Profile, 152Palmer Drought Severity Index

(PDSI), 69Panama Canal, 87, 90Panamax, 87Payment for Environmental

Services Program (PSE), 100PBRs. See PhotobioreactorsPDO. See Pacific Decadal

OscillationPDSI. See Palmer Drought

Severity IndexPhotobioreactors (PBRs), 119–120Photosynthesis, 99–100Planck’s law and radiated energy

earth theoretical mean temperature, 37

power radiation equations, 36Rayleigh–Jeans law, 37Wien displacement law, 38

Polar bears, 65Polar ice cap, 62

Polar vortex, 16PSE. See Payment for

Environmental Services Program

Pyrolysis, 110–111

QQuantum dots, 175Quantum mechanics, 40Quartz weathers, 114

RRayleigh–Jeans law, 37REDD. See Reducing Emissions

from Deforestation and forest Degradation

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD), 100, 102

Reflection coefficient, 35–36Reforestation, 104Refrigerator/heat pump system,

29–30ReMIND, 109Renewable energy sources, 72Residual trapping, 117River transport model (RTM),

83–84RTM. See River transport model

SS-polarized light, 34Sahel droughts, 69Sea level rise

adaptation responses, 79–80Dubai and Abu Dhabi, 75literature, 75–77mitigation responses

digital software packages, 79model simulation and

analysis, 78–79municipal solid waste use,

77–78offshore barrier islands, 78reservoir placement, 77sea walls or barriers, 77

194 • inDEX

Netherlands and Singapore, 75regional authorities cooperation,

81Second law of thermodynamics

and heat dischargeentropy definition, 27–29heat engine system, 29–31refrigerator/heat pump system,

29–30SELF. See Solar Electric Light

FundSOI. See Southern Oscillation

IndexSoil erosion, 102Solar drip irrigation, 171Solar Electric Light Fund (SELF),

171Solar power, 71Solubility trapping, 117South Asian monsoons, 162–163Southern Oscillation Index (SOI),

12–13Spectral radiance, 130–131Sub-polar low zone, 17Subtropical high zone, 17Sulfur dioxide, 55Sunspot cycle

“Little Ice Age,” 7Dalton Minimum, 9–10solar activity and, 8spectral radiance, 8–9sunspot numbers, 9, 10

TThermal images

Seoul, South Korea, 132–133South Florida, United States,

134–135Tokyo, Japan, 133–134

Third Pole, 43TOA. See Top of atmosphereTop of atmosphere (TOA), 46

TPBR. See Tubular photobioreactor

Transmission coefficient, 35–36Tubular photobioreactor (TPBR),

119, 120

UUHI. See Urban heat islandUHII. See Urban Heat Island

IntensityUnderwater built environments, 95United Nations Department of

Economic and Social Affairs, 100

United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), 91

Urban heat island (UHI)anthropogenic heat generation, 127effect, 128–129image selection, 132Landsat

emissivity values, 131Landsat 5 and Landsat 7, 129spectral radiance, 130–131temperature values, 131–132thermal infrared portion,

129–130quantitative differentiation

Chicago, Illinois, United States, 136–137

South Florida, United States, 135–136

temperature differences, 136, 137

thermal imagesSeoul, South Korea, 132–133South Florida, United States,

134–135Tokyo, Japan, 133–134

Urban Heat Island Intensity (UHII), 138–139

USFDA. See United States Food and Drug Administration

inDEX • 195

VVariable warming period, 7Virgin Earth Challenge, 122

WWard Hunt Ice Shelf, 63–65Wastewater reuse, 171–173Weather patterns

coastal flooding, 70–71droughts, 69modeling of, 69North Atlantic hurricane record,

68–69sea level rising factors, 70

Weathering, 113–115West Wind Drift, 94Wien displacement law, 38Wild life and extinction

amphibians, 66native rainforest vertebrates,

66–68polar bears, 65

Wind power, 71World energy consumption

combustion, 47, 50energy conversion, 47, 49fossils fuel and biofuel

consumption, 47–48