1

CHAPTER 1

CENTRAL FOCUS, SIGNIFICANCE AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

As is implicit in the title of my dissertation, the main purpose of the present

research is to study the nature and process of identity development in girls and

women, as it unfolds in the writings of Tamil women writers. I have consciously

attempted to use Literature represented through fictional writings, as the base to

explore this. My concern is particularly with examining the depiction of women’s

life stories, in order to build up a nuanced understanding of the process and

identify issues of significance to gender identity in the portrayals.

My work rests on the assumption that there exists a symbiotic relationship

between Literature and Psychology (Shankar, 2007). While Psychology deals

with the mind and the consciousness of individuals, Literature enables one to

vividly identify the joys, pleasures, dilemmas, conflicts and frustrations of the

protagonists, in the context of the circumstances and situations in which they are

placed, leading to a more comprehensive explication of theoretical issues. Apart

from the representation of narratives and descriptions through the storyline and

characterization that Literature embodies, it also succeeds in building an element

of empathy and awareness towards social issues and subversive practices that

are often camouflaged under the garb of tradition, customs and conventions.

Further, it enables the reader to adopt a critical analytical perspective which

challenges stereotypical notions and images and encourages questioning of the

given and acceptable. It also aids in the construction, reconstruction and

reinterpretation of meanings.

“…The kinds of questions about textual meaning with which literary texts have

hitherto been concerned- what and how did it mean now? And what and how did

2

it mean at the time it was written; may now be extended to what and how did it

mean at any given point between then and now?...” (Bell et al; 2001).

I have selected the works of Tamil women writers not only out of my avid interest

in literature, but also out of my sense of belongingness to the Tamil tradition and

culture. Besides, I always had an inner compelling urge to explore and

understand the psychosocial issues related to identity development that

characterise girls and women belonging to South India, specifically in the context

of the Tamil community. What attracted me towards this research was also the

realization that beyond the gendered identity that brings together women of all

hues, all classes, religions, castes and ideological positions, women’s vernacular

writings also capture the nuances and specificities of the context which they

represent. This makes for more telling and meaningful analysis of how women

lived their lives. My work is based exclusively on women’s writings since I felt

their subjectivity was important in understanding the personal experiential

dimensions that shape their identity. For instance, nobody could have voiced the

concept of women’s space better than Virginia Woolf in her novel.

“…But you may say we asked you to talk about women and writing. What has

that got to do with a room of one’s own…” (Virginia Woolf, in Meghna

Guhathakurda, 1997).

WHY THE FOCUS IS ON WOMEN’S WRITINGS

The main reason why I have focused on Women’s writings is because they carry

a wide arena of possibilities of form and expression and generate plurality of

meanings. They also very often help to subvert the discourse of patriarchy and

reveal its contradictions. ‘Ecriture feminine’ also challenges the masculine

monopoly on the construction of femininity, the female body and women. As has

3

been pointed out by Helene Cixous (1991), “…Write yourself: your body must

make itself heard…” ‘Ecriture feminine’ claims to offer ways in which institutions

and signifying practices (speech, writing, images and myths) belonging to

masculine culture can be resisted.

Further, that women’s experiences are different from those of men is also usually

highlighted through their writings. It is typically woven into their narratives. In

general, if the body of women’s writings is analysed- be it novellas, short stories,

novels, drama or poetry, what can be seen as a common thread that unifies all

these forms of expression is that they carry vivid articulations of women’s lived

realities; their joys, sources of pleasure, happiness and achievements on the one

hand and in somewhat greater proportion, their conflicts, anxieties and dilemmas

that constitute their subjective worlds on the other. Often, their language

expression too is seen to be free of patriarchal bias. I would like to quote the

following lines to substantiate this observation. “…I have come to believe over

and over again that what is most important to me, must be spoken, made verbal

and shared, even at the risk of having bruised or misunderstood…” (Lorde (1984:

40) in Karen Taylor, (1996)).

Further, women’s writings make conspicuous the invisible, marginalized women,

who are struggling hard to make their voices heard. Another positive dimension

about women’s writings is the accessibility that they provide to women to view

new worlds, with the help of which they are able to create new spaces for

themselves. In other words, through the medium of their works, they are able to

envision a feminine Utopia, wherein their freedom of thought and expression is

not curtailed.

It also becomes interesting to study the texts written by women in order to arrive

at a reinterpretation and reconstruction of the image of womanhood.

4

Traditionally, “a woman has always been conceived in terms of her relation to a

man, that is as a wife or mother. This distorted and partial perspective is

challenged by women through some of the texts, whereby they have been seen

taking on active roles not only in the public sphere of politics and employment,

but also in the task of theorizing and conceptualizing human life…” (Gatens,

1991).

Women’s writings are also seen to lend a new dimension to gender related

issues. They help to bring about what may be termed as ‘transformative

emotional involvement’ (Babbitt, 1993). Through the power of discourse that they

carry, these writings have the capacity to draw attention to the inequalities that

characterize women’s lives.

Taking this ahead, Harding (1997) asserted that, “…women’s experiences and

what women say make important contributions to the creation of knowledge…”

Viswanathan (1997) is of the view that “…women’s experiences can provide the

fabric from which their lives can be understood as meaningful…women’s

experiences of their sexuality can be the basis upon which a feminist

understanding can be built…” It may thus be concluded that women’s writings

are a powerful medium not only for the expression of their self, but also for the

construction of their subjectivities and identities.

HOW THE TAMIL WOMEN WRITERS WHO FIND REPRESENTATION IN THE

PRESENT STUDY WERE LOCATED AND IDENTIFIED

Identification of the eight women writers- Ambai, Bama, Lakshmi Kannan, P.

Sivakami, Vaasanthi, Rajam Krishnan, Salma and Sivasankari, whose

representative writings have been included in the present study was done

through an elaborate scouting process. I made a conscious attempt to select

5

these writers through an extensive and elaborate scouting task, which involved

visits to suitable libraries and publishing houses like the National Book Trust,

Zubaan, Kali for Women and Katha, which publish vernacular and translated

editions of women’s writings. In addition, detailed consultations with experts who

included translators, publishers, academicians and the women writers whose

works form a part of my research work, were done. The main purpose of doing

this scouting task was to avoid picking up populist writers and identify more

serious writers who wrote on issues related to identity and gender. I also wanted

to ensure that the selected authors represent multiple voices and lenses. In the

Sahitya Akademi Library, I scanned through the entire collection of South Indian

Women writers’ translated works. I was able to identify a wide range of writings

which also included feminist and quasi feminist writings in Tamil, Telugu,

Kannada and Malayalam. I then read a few works by Volga, Kuppili Padma,

Tejaswini Niranjana, Abburi Chaya Devi (Telugu), Lalithambika Antherjanam,

Kamala Das (Malayalam) and Sara Aboobacker (Kannada) to get a flavour of the

nature and variety in women’s writings.

However, since my study is based on Tamil women writers, I then focused on the

task of locating and selecting those writers whose translated works were

available and who write on themes related to women and gender, which are of

contemporary relevance. I was able to select eight authors, whose writings span

a time period from the 1980s to the present. A coverage of three decades, it was

felt would help to provide a socio-historical perspective to the research. It would

also enable an analysis of the nature and form of changes on issues of gender

and women’s identity, across this time span.

Initially, in order to know about the genre of writings and the range and diversity

of themes which characterize women’s writings, I consulted an anthology where

the interviews of several women writers were documented. This provided an

6

insight not only into their personal life experiences and struggles, but also served

to build an understanding about the spectrum of themes dealt upon by them

through their works. Most of the writers were seen to be actively engaged with

issues related to women and were dissatisfied with their personal lives. For

instance, Bama, a Dalit woman writer, had experienced a turbulent marriage and

her writings exhibited deep concerns about issues related to caste and gender.

To finalise the list of eight authors who were selected for the research, expert

validation was done through consulting those publishers who were well versed

with Tamil literature and academicians who taught in Delhi University and

Jawaharlal Nehru University. Before consulting the experts, information was

gathered on a wide range of writers who wrote in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and

Malayalam. The Sahitya Akademi Library proved to be a useful resource centre

in this regard, since it housed the translated writings of South Indian women

writers. Besides, the Librarian and the Chief Librarian there were of immense

help in locating the writers. The two volume anthology by Susie Tharu and K.

Lalitha (1991, 1993) was elaborately consulted in order to capture the essence

and genre of women’s writings and also to look for the writers who wrote on

issues related to gender and identity. Volume II contained the writings of Ambai,

Rajam Krishnan and Chudamani Raghavan, all of whom were Tamil women

writers who portrayed gender issues with sensitivity and conviction. The shelf on

South Indian literature in the library was thoroughly scanned by me. Through my

elaborate scouting task, I made a list of the women writers across South India

who dealt with such issues. However, an expert validation was essential in order

to endorse my selection of writers. Further, since I was going to work with

translations, I consulted them on this aspect as well. I also asked them to name

the writers who wrote exclusively on gender and specifically on issues of

women’s identity. A wide range of experts, who included editors and publishers

like Ram Ramnarayan from New Horizon Media Limited (a publication house

7

which mainly deals with translations of Tamil writers), Ms Mandira Sen, Editor,

Stree Publications, writers cum translators such as Ambai, Vaasanthi Sundaram,

Lakshmi Kannan, Sivasankari and J. Devika, noted translators and academicians

such as Lakshmi Holmstrom, Alladi Uma, M. Sridhar, Vanamala Viswanatha, V.

Geetha, Dr. GJV Prasad, Dr. Krishnaswamy Nachimutthu and academicians like

Professor Jasbir Jain, Head of the English Department, Jaipur University, and Dr.

Premananthan who taught in Delhi University validated the list that I had put

together through my own efforts and the suggestions given by the experts. The

experts were then asked to classify the eight women writers who were identified

in terms of the nature of their writing. Bama and Sivakami were classified as Dalit

women writers, Rajam Krishnan and Ambai as feminist writers and Salma, a

contemporary feminist Muslim writer. One of the academicians categorized

Sivasankari as the writer who writes about issues which do not necessarily

centre around family, but on the other hand dealt with non-stereotypical themes.

As a part of my own effort, in addition to reading the works of all the selected

authors, I was able to interact with five of them which included Ambai, Vaasanthi,

Lakshmi Kannan, Salma and Sivasankari through e-mail communication and

telephonic conversations. Through this interaction, I got not only an idea of

where they position themselves as writers and about the specific themes that

they cover, but I was able to build insights and perspective on Tamil Women’s

writings in general, as well. The conclusion that emerged was that with the

exception of Sivasankari who has been categorized as a populist writer and a

social activist and has written on a wide range of issues apart from gender

related issues, all the other selected writers-Ambai, Lakshmi Kannan, Rajam

Krishnan, Vaasanthi, Bama, Sivakami and Salma wrote exclusively on issues

related to gender and identity. The reason for the popularity of Sivasankari as a

writer lies in the fact that some of her works have been filmed in Tamil and have

even been made into television serials.

8

In fact, from among the eight Tamil women writers whose representative works

constitute the sample of my study, Salma, Vaasanthi, Ambai, Rajam Krishnan,

Lakshmi Kannan and Sivasankari were particularly selected since their writings

reflect issues, events and experiences that are central to women’s lives. In

addition, two Dalit writers, Bama and Sivakami were identified and consciously

included since they deal with women’s problems, particularly gender inequality

within a society that is socially oppressed. In fact, Salma’s inclusion was also

deliberate since apart from being a Muslim, she captures with full boldness the

incongruence and discontinuities between the beliefs and practices of

conventional orthodox societies and the pulls of personal wishes and desires,

particularly in the context of women’s sexuality. Likewise, the inclusion of Rajam

Krishnan and Ambai was a conscious choice, since they are considered the

militant feminist writers who espouse women’s causes with perseverance,

conviction and realism. In a similar stead, since the works of Lakshmi Kannan

embody a wide range of women’s issues and often carry positive symbols and

messages of how they live and experience their lives, inclusion of her writings

was once again, a conscious choice.

What is common to all the eight writers is that they express their perceptions,

views and feelings on issues of growing up female, family life, marriage,

motherhood, sexuality and relationships with full boldness and candidness, often

taking recourse to a vocabulary normally forbidden to them. It appears as if

economic independence, access to education and social acceptance has

encouraged them to use the style and language expression that they do, as does

the concern to capture the emotional intensities that characterise the lives of girls

and women in print. They write with a sense of social responsibility intended to

draw attention to the problems and challenges unique to women in Tamil Nadu.

These include living in a joint family system, the evils of dowry, gender

discrimination, arranged marriages, caste oppression, alcoholism, etc. What

further tends to unify all these writers, despite their diverse socio-cultural and

9

religious backgrounds is the fact that their writings represent a wide range of

issues that are contemporary, realistic, sensitive and absorbing. Moreover, they

all exhibit a staunch awareness of identity related issues, which finds vivid

reflection in their literary work, be it novels, novellas or short stories. I would like

to mention that as representations of literary writings, I have included novels,

novellas and short stories.

LIST OF AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS WHICH HAVE BEEN INCLUDED IN

THE PRESENT STUDY

While the detailed author biographies and synoptic overview of their specific work

selected for the present study will be discussed elaborately in the next chapter, I

would like to nevertheless draw up a list here as well. The following works have

been included for the present study.

1. Ambai, Two Novellas And A Story,

i. Wrestling

ii. Unpublished Manuscript

iii. A Deer In The Forest

2. Ambai, A purple sea,

i. Gifts

ii. My mother, her crime

iii. Wings: I

iv. Wings: II

v. Trisanku

vi. Once again

vii. Black horse square

viii. Fifteen

ix. Yellow fish

x. A kitchen in the corner of the house

10

3. Ambai, In A Forest, A Deer, Stories

i. Journey 1

ii. Journey 2

iii. Parasakti and Others in a Plastic Box

iv. Vaaganam

v. Journey 3

vi. Forest

vii. A Movement, a Folder, some Tears

4. Bama Faustina, Sangati Events,

5. Bama Faustina, Harum-scarum saar and other stories,

i. Chilli powder

ii. Rich girl

iii. Ponnuthayi

iv. Half-sari

v. Freedom

6. Lakshmi Kannan, Glass Walls a novella, Translated from the original Tamil

by the author, from the book, Rhythms and Other Stories,

7. Lakshmi Kannan, India Gate and other stories,

i. Urvashi 2000

ii. The Coming of Devi

iii. Islanders

iv. Shell

v. Moorings

vi. A Pea in the Mattress

vii. Pain

viii. A Fever

ix. Muniyakka

x. India Gate

7. Lakshmi Kannan, Going Home,

11

8. Lakshmi Kannan, Simone de Beauvoir and the Manes, long story

Translated from the original Tamil by the author, from the book A Storehouse

of Tales,

9. Rajam Krishnan, Lamps in the Whirlpool,

10. P. Sivakami, The grip of change,

11. Salma, The Hour Past Midnight,

12. Sivasankari, Deception,

13. Sivasankari, Bridges,

14. Vaasanthi Sundaram, Birthright.

A NOTE ON TRANSLATIONS

Since my work is based on translated writings, there were a number of doubts

and queries that came to my mind about the authenticity of translated writings.

The issue was resolved by reading some writings in translation studies which

discuss the matter in detail. Experts in the field were also consulted for their

views and advice, particularly with respect to my study. In this section, an attempt

has been made to present the process that was followed in this pursuit.

Justification for the use of translated writings has also been given.

To address the doubts and apprehensions related to using translated writings, a

set of key questions were prepared seeking information and clarification on the

issue from a wide range of experts. (The detail interview schedule has been

given in Appendix I). These experts included publishers, academicians,

translators and writers. The key questions centred around four major concerns,

which were as follows:

- The ethical and methodological correctness of taking up translated literature

in the face of unfamiliarity with the source language

12

- The possibility of the essence of original writing getting lost in translated

literature

- The issue of the contemporary relevance of translated texts, especially where

there has been a time lag between the date of original writing and translation

- The basis on which certain texts are taken up for translation.

I would now like to present the views, opinions and expert comments on all the

four dimensions stated above, as they emerged as narrative expressions.

While doing the scouting task on the availability of translated literature, the most

significant question was whether it would be possible to adequately represent the

identity related issues concerning the lives of girls and women from translated

writings? (The first question identified for experts.) The question was answered

by the noted Tamil writer, Vaasanthi Sundaram, who remarked,

“… The world knows Garcia Marques only through the translations. So why

worry? You have the advantage of knowing to speak Tamil, which means you

can reasonably well relate to the ethos of the South Indian languages and their

cultural nuances even in translation. Of course the power of an Indian language

in the original cannot be fully transmitted in English which is alien to the culture

here. But still English being a language of general communication, translation in

English is the only way you can reach across a wider circle of readers…”

Many of the experts held a similar view. What emerged as a very significant view

was that ‘one must treat translations as translations and not confuse them with

the original’. In fact, the noted translator Lakshmi Holmstrom clearly emphasized,

“A translation is different; the original is different.” What is worth mentioning here

is that some of the experts refer to the act of translation as “interpretation” and

“transcreation”. However, it becomes important to acknowledge the fact that if we

13

consider translated literature as one which has ample scope for interpretation,

then even a text written in the original language offers possibilities for

reinterpretation, the only difference being that the umbrella for reinterpretation

becomes larger in the case of translation. In this regard, C.T. Indra (2002) has

pointed out in her article, “Horizon of Expectations: Hermeneutics and

Translation”:

“In translation, the horizon is unbounded…” (p.169)

On the second question raised for expert consideration, about the possibility of

the essence getting lost through translations, most experts were of the opinion

that though there are some things that get lost in translation, the essence or the

basic theme gets retained. This is substantiated by Lakshmi Kannan in the

section on the Translator’s Note of her book, “India Gate and other stories”. “A

translator needs to follow the tonal curves of the original and absorb the thoughts

that wrap around words imperceptibly. She then becomes aware of the

ambiguities and the verbal idiosyncrasies that are inherent in the source

language and the linguistic guiles endemic in the people it represents. Equally,

she realizes that the target language has to accommodate this hidden

intelligence of a language. In her attempt to recapture these elements in her

translation, a cross-fertilization of two cultures takes place out of which a new, a

third element is born which bears a resemblance to both the source and target

language. It is least problematic when the translation is from one Indian language

to another. But in English, translations are yet to find a salubrious critical climate

in India, thanks to rigid, unhelpful attitudes that are rampant in the literary scene.

There is much petty squabbling about what is right and what is wrong by persons

who make a fetish of “correctness” which catches the letter and misses the spirit.

They miss out on the extra verbal reverberations caused by nascent levels of

meaning that elude explicit renderings in translation…”

14

I would also like to quote Ambai (C.S. Lakshmi), one of the famous writers of

Tamil literature in this regard.

“…The essence does not get lost as much as the rhythm, colour and images that

go with the language and cultural context of the original language…”

Ambai even remarks that the sounds of a particular language cannot be

translated. “The river flows with a jaljala sound in Tamil. You walk fast in Tamil in

a viduvidu manner and you run in a kudukudu way. A terrible trembling is called a

kidukidu tremble in Tamil. You sob vikkivikki in Tamil. And you climb

madamada… The sounds that go with a noun or an act create a certain rhythm in

the story. All of this is lost in English…” (64) (Ambai, 2009)

What needs to be emphasized here is that in the present research, an attempt is

not being made to look at the linguistic aspects or the literary quality of the texts;

in fact, the major thrust is on the representation of identity related issues through

the medium of life stories, narratives and experiential realities of the female

protagonists. One of the experts also mentioned in the interview that the

translators try to stay “faithfully close” to the source text, since, “words have

different resonances, they never equate between one language and another…A

translation is a discovery and celebration of the source text. And you must know

the grammar and structure of the language… What works in one language does

not work the same way in the other language…” While on the one hand this

holds good for any translated text, on the other hand there are also other experts,

who are of the opinion that in a multilingual society like ours, translations are the

only gateways that enable us to access the literature of other regions. In fact, the

famous Tamil writer, Sivasankari’s project, “Knit India Through Literature” is

an evidence of this. Through this large volume, she has enabled the readers to

15

explore the flavour of literature of all regions and states. Furthermore, the noted

Tamil writer, Vaasanthi Sundaram, has pointed out that since English is a

“language of general communication; translation into it is the only way through

which one can reach a wider circle of readers.”

In May 1970, the P.E.N (‘Poets, Essayists and Novelists’) Manifesto on

Translation described translation as “lost children in the enchanted forest of

literature” (xi) through whom we gain access to another culture. The Manifesto

added that “without the lost children, we are all lost” (xi). However, another

interesting aspect has been highlighted. There seems to be an added advantage

if the translator happens to be the author herself. As Lakshmi Kannan has

pointed out in the Translator’s Note of her book, “India Gate and other stories”,

“…she can get a curious feeling of rewriting the original. Perhaps unwittingly, she

may find herself working very hard honing a word here, or trimming the smallest

unit of a sentence there, in her search for the closest approximation to the

original text because she knows exactly what she meant when she wrote the

original…” (xi)

However, translators like M. Sridhar, from the University of Hyderabad, have

pointed out that although all “good translations would try to get the essence of

their originals”, yet one has no option but to depend on the translated texts. At

the same time, he also raises a valid point: “…How do we know if the Greek/

French/ German texts we read in English are translations where the essence has

indeed been retained?…”

Although translation is the product of team work between the author, translator

and the editor, the differences that arise in the interpretation of the texts have

been justified by the writers and translators in many ways.

16

“….The translator’s own understanding of the source text, her/ his location, her/

his position vis-à-vis the source gives rise to different interpretations of the text.

Doing justice to the source text will have to be evaluated on the basis of the

translator's empathy with the source…The ideology of the translator will also

transform the source in certain ways. The reader's own ideological position will

determine the way s/he receives the translated text…” (M. Sridhar, Translator)

Though translation has been justified by the experts as having ample scope for

interpretation, yet there are certain norms to which a translator has to adhere to.

As Ambai has pointed out, “…A translation is an interpretation in a way, for the

expression of one language is fitted into the reality of another. When certain

words, phrases or idioms are not translatable, you interpret it so that it makes

sense in the translated language. Other than that, if a translator tries to interpret

the intentions of the author and draws her own conclusions and bases her

translations on that, it won't do justice to the original. A translator's attempt must

be to respect the original text for what it is and not make it a vehicle for her own

expression. For that she should write her own story and not tamper with that of

another…”

To substantiate the above mentioned comment, I would like to cite certain

observations that were made during the course of this study, which basically

support the fact that however adequate or inadequate the usage of words may

be, at times, they serve to strengthen the potency of the theme that the text

intends to convey. Sivasankari’s book entitled “Deception”, which has its

original title as “Poi” (meaning Lie) conveys deeper meaning. The translator has

attempted to go beyond the text and has given a title keeping in mind the theme

as well as the plight of the protagonist. The choice of this title lends a deeper

meaning to the text than its original title, had it been translated literally.

17

Lakshmi Holmstrom has acknowledged the impossibility of a word to word

translation of texts. She points out that “…words are taken out of context. Words

have different resonances and they never equate between one language and

another. So translation is not a mirror. It is an interpretation, a close reading that

the translator tries to carry over to a different language…” It is interesting to note

that most of the translators have pointed out that even the reading of the original

text leads to the construction and interpretation of different meanings, which may

be different from the goals that the writer may have had in mind.

Thus, I wish to submit that as a researcher, I contemplated on the issue of using

translated texts extensively and took into cognizance the varying views of

different experts before going ahead. I took a cue from Ritu Menon’s article,

“Authorial Submissions: Publishing and Translation” (2002).

“…In her presentation of Mahashweta Devi’s ‘The Breast Giver’, Spivak offered

no less than eight possible interpretations of the original: as a historian and

teacher of literature; from the author’s subject position; the teacher and reader’s

position; a Marxist feminist reading; a liberal feminist reading; and a gendered

subaltern reading. Each of these might make for a different translation of it. Both

translation and interpretation have an important bearing on how the story may be

used by a teacher of texts, she explained, especially one concerned with the

production of meaning and with the ‘gendered subaltern’, the protagonist of

Mahashweta’s story…” (129-130)

Another question which bothered me about using translations was whether there

exists a gendered relationship between the translator and the one whose work

gets translated. In other words, what I wanted to find out here was whether there

emerges a difference in perspective in case a text written by a female writer gets

translated by a male writer. While some of the experts were of the opinion that

18

there are not likely to be major differences, there were some who interestingly

pointed out that the differences might emerge within and among significant

dimensions such as gender, caste and class that is, in the case of women

translating women’s texts. Inability to understand the writer’s background,

ideology, lack of empathy, sensitivity and openness to new ideas might bring

about such differences.

Dr. GJV Prasad of Jawaharlal Nehru University who was one of the experts,

whom I consulted, highlighted how the perception and understanding of one

writer might vastly differ from that of another. For instance, he remarked that

Bama, a Dalit woman writer may have Brahmin friends, but when she writes, her

identity as a Dalit becomes quite distinct. Similarly, he remarked that a Brahmin

writer might not be able to capture the experiences of a Dalit woman completely.

“One has to have compassion and be empathetic in order to be able to

understand the issues.”

I would like to present some other significant comments made by the experts to

validate their point of view.

“…If you agree that women read texts differently from men, then obviously a

translation by a woman will be different as a translation too is a reading. Also, it

would depend on the background of the woman too, i.e., it would depend on the

race, caste, class background, etc…” (Alladi Uma, Translator).

However, the differences may not arise in case, “the translator works with the

writer. Even women translate men. I have translated male writers and they have

had no complaints. I think it is a question of being open to new ideas and even a

contrary view. If a woman translates another woman without understanding the

core of the writer's worldview, the translation would be as bad as any other bad

19

translation attempted by any other translator, female or male…” (Ambai (C.S.

Lakshmi), a noted writer).

Most of the texts that I have chosen have been translated by women, with the

exception of Bama’s “Harum-scarum saar and other stories,” translated by N.

Ravi Shanker and Sivasankari’s “Bridges” translated by S. Krishnan.

Convergence of views in this regard seems to be based on the understanding

that since the translators’ subjective, phenomenological experiences are vast and

varied, there are bound to be differences, irrespective of the fact whether they

are male or female.

Another major factor that is noteworthy in the translations debate is the paucity of

texts written by women writers. This leads us on to the question as to why a

particular text gets translated. Many factors contribute to the translator’s choice

of text. The popularity of an author or a work, imitation of a genre or of a foreign

style, evangelization, personal fascination of a translator for a particular author or

work, the political situation or the desire to unravel the universal character of

literature, the source text’s support to the ideologies and agendas of the target

culture, are some of the factors that have inspired translators through history to

take up certain texts for translation. It is significant to note that although there is

no dearth of contemporary women writers, the translators are not motivated

enough to translate their works. While two works of the same male writer get

translated, women’s texts are neglected. Rajam Krishnan has attributed this to

the bias of the male counterparts who are unable to come to terms with the

writings by women and their unwillingness to accept their writings as mainstream

Tamil writing.

As I identified South Indian translated literature, I observed that there was a time

lag ranging from three to ten years, and in some texts more than ten years,

20

between the writing of the original texts and their date of translation. In such a

case, the relevance of the issues raised could be questioned in the present day

context. Thus, it became important for me to find out how to deal with the time

lag and decide how to raise the issues embodied in the original writings

meaningfully in the contemporary situation. On this issue, most of the experts

were of the opinion that there is a certain degree of universality and timelessness

about literature and that the literary texts are never meant to be written for the

readers of a specific era only.

In fact, Chaucer’s tales and Shakespeare’s plays would serve as meaningful

examples here since they reflect a universalism of appeal, popularity and

relevance across time and centuries. The reason for the survival of all great

literature lies in its timeless quality. One of the experts pointed out very strongly

that all great literature is meant to be translated.

Chandra Bagal in the introductory remarks to his magisterial survey of the

nineteenth century Bangla translation-literature has pointed out: “…It is true that

no literature can reach fullness without the help of translations…” (Bagal, 1968)

The reason as to why a particular book written some twenty years ago gets

translated two decades later reveals to us the purpose and intention of the

translator. This could be due to the contemporary debates in literature, or the

translator’s urge to spread the message across the reading public. In this

context, I would like to quote the comments and opinions of the experts, which

clearly illustrate the point that even though the issues embodied in the original

text may not be contemporary, yet they could be revisited, perceived and

reinterpreted in an entirely new light. This would be how their relevance would

get established.

21

“…I don't think stories are written to reflect a particular time period alone although

particular events of a period may get reflected in that. But basically stories are

timeless in a certain sense for sometimes a particular story gets written twenty

years after it has been experienced. And the translation may happen twenty

years later. Many things being told in the story may have changed in those

twenty years including the language. But when stories are reprinted the original

language and style have to be retained and when they are translated the original

events or opinions cannot be changed. The text can be interpreted differently at

each point of reading… What is contemporary in literature is that a particular idea

or theme is approached at a particular given time. Like I may write an entire

novel about the Devadasi system but my perspective of looking at it will be from

the times in which I live, and the ways in which I have informed myself about a

given historical reality and how my cultural context continues to be affected by

that reality. So I will be seeing it not only from what it was at a given time but how

I see it and experience it sitting in my present times. The translator or a later

reader may have to see it at different levels of experience, interpretation and

expression and as a multi-layered text and not see it as a one-dimensional flat

text…” (Ambai)

“…Translations reflect the present in that that they indicate in what manner and

through what means the text wishes to engage the past. In this sense, a

translated text answers anxieties of the present, of the historical present…”

(Geetha V., Translator)

“…All good short stories speak of Universal truths as revealed to the story teller

which hold good to the reader whenever the original may have been written.

Being contemporary is reflected in style and handling of the subject. Writers have

been writing about the same subject-love, betrayal, joy, sorrow. The difference

lies in the presentation and perception…” (Vaasanthi, Tamil writer).

22

Thus, the perceptions regarding translated texts are wide and varied. To some,

they might appear as a ‘transparent window’, to some as a ‘tinted window’,

whereas to yet some others, as a ‘mirror’. Despite the multiple perspectives, one

cannot ignore the fact that most of the literature in India would have been lost but

for translations. Above all, only translations lend longevity to the texts:

“…translation bestows an indefinitely long life upon a text whose original career

may have terminated much earlier had it not drawn a translator’s attention…”

(Sujit Mukherjee (2002), p.34)

This exercise on seeking validation to work with translations was thus extremely

worthwhile since the relative consensus among the diverse views that were

tapped, suggested that the anomalies of translations did not pose a serious

threat to the present research. On the contrary, my work it was hoped would

serve to bring into the contemporary academic space, those works, written

across the last three decades. This of course rests on the near universal belief

that literature owing to its timeless quality and interpretative freedom enables us

to revisit issues captured in a particular time frame, in the light of present times.

METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH PROCESS

The very first step in this direction, as has already been discussed was the

selection of the eight women writers and their representative works through

meticulous scouting.

The next step was the identification of significant issues from their works. For

this, I read all the translated works of the writers selected for the study

beforehand and made a list of the identity and gender issues which get reflected

in their writings. The issues revolved around the protagonists’ life experiences,

their relationships, dilemmas, struggles and the different situations and

23

circumstances which characterized their lives. Significant narratives which were

illustrative of these were also identified. An attempt was made to cull out the

narratives through a cross case analysis of the books, duly respecting the

characters’ lens, circumstances and situations in the context of the story line.

Although the narratives were drawn to substantiate the particular issue under

study, yet it was deemed important to develop a conceptual analytical framework

in which the present research could be embedded. This became the third step.

Thus, a wider review of related research was taken up to identify theoretical and

scholarly writings and articles which could feed into building up the conceptual-

analytical framework of the present research. Prior to this, the novels, novellas

and short stories had already been read with the aim of delineating issues of

relevance to the nature and process of identity development in girls and women,

which they embody. The review of related research that was undertaken served

to further explore these issues. The aim was to gain a wider conceptual

understanding which would enable better theorization. It was also felt that since

the present study is interdisciplinary in nature and since gender issues are so

widely studied and understood across disciplines, this width of spectrum should

inform the analytical framework of the present study. Thus researches in Political

Science, Sociology, Psychology, English Literature and Law that focus on gender

were read, analysed and used for the theoretical build up. The focus was largely

kept to Indian Studies, since the writings being analysed for the present research

are situated in a specific cultural context which may seem incongruent with the

Western context.

Based on the issues that had been delineated and insights drawn from the

review of related research, a conceptual analytical framework was developed. A

set of analytical questions based on this framework were then developed. The

conceptual analytical framework was then validated and finalized through a

consultative process with four experts who had specialized in gender studies

24

across various disciplines which included Sociology, History, Education and

Women Studies. An appointment was sought individually with each of the experts

to facilitate the process (a detailed description of the same is provided in Chapter

3). All the experts gave their views and suggestions on the basis of which it was

finalized. The expert from Sociology proposed that the identity related issues of

women should be looked at from an empowered perspective rather than a

victimized perspective. The expert from History proposed that identity must be

studied in relation to its caste and communal contours only where they become

genuine signifiers of the process of its construction. Accordingly, taking note of all

these suggestions, the framework was consolidated and finalized. It is discussed

elaborately in Chapter 3.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The following are the objectives of my study:

To know the nature and process of identity development in girls and

women as it unfolds in the selected literary writings.

To identify and analyse the key construals of identity.

To study the experiences and subjective worlds of the central protagonists

in the context of the identified construals of identity.

To understand the diversity of experiences that characterise the socio-

cultural world of girls and women.

To locate representations of empowerment, voice and agency in the

identity construction process of girls and women.

25

CHAPTER SCHEME

CHAPTER 1: CENTRAL FOCUS, SIGNIFICANCE AND METHODOLOGY OF

THE STUDY

CHAPTER 2: AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES AND OVERVIEW OF THE

SELECTED LITERARY WRITINGS

CHAPTER 3: CONCEPTUAL ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

CHAPTER 4: KEY CONSTRUALS OF IDENTITY I: i) DEVELOPMENT OF

SELF AND ii) GENDER CONFLICTS, PERSONAL

STRUGGLES AND WAYS OF COPING

CHAPTER5: KEY CONSTRUALS OF IDENTITY II: i) EXPERIENCES OF

EMBODIMENT AND SEXUALITY ii) CASTE AND COMMUNAL

CONTOURS

CHAPTER 6: CONSOLIDATION AND DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS

AND INTERFACE WITH EDUCATION.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDICES