Chapter-1 Introduction to Research Methodology.

7/31/2019 Chapter-1 Introduction to Research Methodology.

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Research Methodology


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Contents of the course

Chapter- 1 Introduction, Types and Methods of Researchand Ethical Issues in ResearchChapter- 2 Formulating the Research ProblemChapter- 3 Research ProcessChapter- 4 Review the Literature

Review concepts and TheoriesReview the previous Research Findings

Chapter- 5 Formulate HypothesisChapter- 6 Research DesignChapter- 7 Sample DesignChapter- 8 Methods of Data collectionChapter- 9 Data Analysis (Test the Hypothesis if any)Chapter- 10 Conclusions and RecommendationsChapter- 11 Research Proposal

Chapter -12 Research Report


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Chapter- 1 Introduction

Meaning of Research

Objectives of Research

Motivation in Research Types of Research

Research Approaches

Need for understanding different types of research


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What is Research?

Meaning of research

Advanced learner Dictionary of currentEnglish

Research is defined as a careful investigation or

inquiry specially through search for new facts inany branch of knowledge

Redman and Mory

Systematized effort to gain new knowledge

Some people consider research as

a movement, a movement from the known to theunknown.


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What is Research?

According to Clifford Woodyresearch comprises defining andredefining problems, formulating

hypothesis or suggested solutions;collecting, organizing and evaluatingdata; making deductions and reachingconclusions; and at last carefully testingthe conclusions to determine whether they

fit the formulating hypothesis.


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What is Research?

D.Slesinger and M.Stephenson in theEncyclopedia of Social Sciences define theresearch as the manipulation of things, conceptsor symbols for the purpose of generalizing toextend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that

knowledge aids in construction of theory or in thepractice of an art.

In short, the research for knowledge throughobjective and systematic method of findingsolution to a problem is research. The systematicapproach concerning generalization and theformulation of a theory is also research


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Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questionsthrough the application of scientific procedures. The main aimof research is to find out the truth which is hidden and whichhas not been discovered as yet.

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or

formulative research studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known asdescriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with whichit is associated with something else (studies with this object in view areknown as diagnostic research studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables (suchstudies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).


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Motivation in Research

What makes people to undertake research? Desire to get a research degree along with its

consequential benefits;

Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolvedproblems i.e., concern over practical problems initiatesresearch;

Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

Desire to be of service to society;

Desire to get respectability.

There may be many other factors such as directives ofgovernment, employment conditions, curiosity aboutnew things, desire to understand casual relationships,social thinking and awakening, etc.


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Types of Research1 . Descriptive Research

It includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of differentkind.The major purpose of descriptive research is description ofthe state of affairs as it exists at present.In social science and business research we quite often usethe termEx post facto research for descriptive researchstudies.The main characteristic of this method is that theresearcher has no control over the variables; he can onlyreport what has happened or what is happening.

2.Analytical ResearchThe researcher has to use facts or information alreadyavailable, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation ofthe material.


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Types of Research

3.Applied (Action) Research

It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facinga society or an industrial business organization.

The research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution)

facing a concrete social or business problem is an example ofapplied research.

Research to identify social, economic or political trends thatmay affect a particular institution or the copy research(research to find out whether certain communications will be

read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluationresearch are examples of applied research.

Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover asolution for some pressing practical problem.


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Types of Research

4. Fundamental (basic or pure) research

It is mainly concerned with generalizations and with theformulation of a theory.Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure or

basic research.Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating topure mathematics are examples of fundamental research.Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior, arealso examples of fundamental research.The basic research is directed towards finding informationthat has a broad base of application and thus, adds to thealready existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

5. Quantitative ResearchIt is based on the measurement of quantity or amountIt is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in termsof quantity.


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Types of Research

6. Qualitative Research

It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relatingto or involving quality or kind.

For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons forhuman behavior (why people think or do certain things), we quite

often talk of Motivation Research, an important qualitative research. It aims to discover the underlying motives and desires, using in depth

interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are work association tests, sentence

completion tests, storey completion tests and similar other projectivetechniques.

Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out howpeople feel or why they thing about a particular subject or institution isalso qualitative research.

It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practicerelatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, andone should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.


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Types of Research

7. Conceptual Research

It is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.

It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to

develop new concepts or to reinterprets existingones.


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Types of Research

8. Empirical Research or Experimental Research

It relies on experience or observation alone, often without dueregard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming upwith conclusions which are capable of being verified by observationor experiment. We can also call it as experimental research.

It works based on hypothesis or guess as to the probable resultsand then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprovehypothesis.

Such research is the characterized by the experiments control overthe variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of onethem to study its effects.

Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain

variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is

today considered to be the most powerful support possible for agiven hypothesis


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Types of Research

9. Observational StudiesIn this case the data are collected by observing some process which

may be well understood examples study of work process, processreengineering or process mapping

A sample survey, which is used to gain peoples attitudes to politicalquestions or consumer goods is also a type of observational study.

10. Historical researchIt is involved with the study of past eventsFactors leading to the development and growth of cooperativelearning.It utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to studyevents or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and

groups at any remote point of time.Example the effects of decisions of the United States SupremeCourt on American Education.


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Types of Research

11. Correlational researchIt attempts to determine whether and to what degree, a relationshipexists between two or more quantifiable (numerical) variables.However, it is important to remember that just because there is asignificant relationship between two variables it does not follow thatone variable causes the other.

When two variables are correlated you can use the relationship topredict the value on one variable for a subject if you know thatsubject's value on the other variable.Correlation implies prediction but not causation.The investigator frequently uses the correlation coefficient to report

the results of Correlational research.Examples are The relationship between intelligence and self-esteemor The relationship between anxiety and achievement or The use ofan aptitude test to predict success in an algebra course.


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Types of Research

12. Causal-comparative researchIt attempts to establish cause-effect relationshipsamong the variables of the study.

The attempt is to establish that values of the

independent variable have a significant effect on thedependent variable.

This type of research usually involves group

comparisons.


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APPROCHES - RESEARCH STUDIES

The qualitative versus quantitative approach to theclassification of research activities classifies all research studiesinto one of six categories

Qualitative approach The qualitative approach involves thecollection of extensive narrative data in order to gain insights intophenomena of interest; data analysis includes the coding of the

data and production of a verbal synthesis (inductive process)1. Historical research2. Qualitative research

Quantitative approach The quantitative approaches involvethe collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict,and/or control phenomena of interest; data analysis is mainly

statistical (deductive process)1. Descriptive research2. Correlational research3. Causal-comparative research4. Experimental Research


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Research Approaches

There are two types of research approaches

1. Quantitative Approach

2. Qualitative Approach


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Quantitative Approach

It involves the collection of numerical data in order

to explain, predict, and/or control phenomena ofinterest; data analysis is mainly statistical (deductiveprocess)


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Purpose

It is generally undertaken to establish facts, demonstraterelationships, determine effects, or test theory.

Quantitative researchers are particularly interested indiscovering cause-and effect relationships and generatingdata that allow outcomes to be predicted.

An additional purpose of quantitative research is to generalizesample findings to more broadly defined populations.

A quantitative approach would be appropriate if anresearcher interested in answering questions such as

What causes?Which solution would be effective?

Find the Characteristics

Identify the Factors associated

Predict the outcome


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Strategies

In a typical quantitative study, the researcher preselectand defines how the variables of interest will bemeasured (i.e. develops operational definitions for the

variables), collects and quantifies (i.e, assigns numerical

values to) the data, and then analysis the data by meansof statistical procedures.

Quantitative studies are characterized by relativelystructured designs and data-collection methods (examplesurveys, structured interviews, or structured

observations) and relatively large samples. Sample size is predetermined by taking into account the

statistical techniques that will be used to analyse thestudy data.


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Strategies- Contd

The quantitative researcher typically has a short-term, detached relationship with the studys subjects.

The numerical data and statistical findings generated

in a quantitative study are seen as ensuringobjectivity and replicability.

Quantitative research yields a broad, generalisableset of findings that are presented dispassionately and

succinctly.


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Strengths

Quantitative approach is generally credited with thefollowing strengths

The ability to efficiently generate broad-based data setsfrom large samples.

Control over extraneous (unnecessary or irrelevant)variables, which facilitates the detection of cause- and-effect relationships.

Methods of sampling and statistical analysis thatfacilitate generalizing findings from a study sample to thepopulation from which it was drawn.

Numerical data and statistical findings that are perceivedas objective and highly reliable. This makes quantitativefindings credible and highly convincing to manyaudiences.


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Limitations

Quantitative research is associated with the followinglimitations;

The high degree of control in many quantitative studiesmay compromise real-world generalisability of findings.

Quantitative data can provide a rather superficial view of

what is being studied because breadth of investigation andcoverage of an issue are emphased over depth of coverageof a phenomenon.

Numbers and statistics may create only an illusion ofobjectivity. That is, numbers can be manipulated and

statistical findings can be interpreted inappropriately, thusleading to a biased response to a problem or issue. The results section of a quantitative study, which is usually

replete with reports of statistical analysis, can be difficult toread.


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Qualitative approach

It involves the collection of extensive narrative datain order to gain insights into phenomena of interest;data analysis includes the coding of the data and

production of a verbal synthesis (inductive process)


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Paradigm

Qualitative research is based on a paradigmthat posts that truth is dynamic and can befound only by studying persons as they interactas unitary (beings) in mutual process with theUniverse.

Qualitative researchers believe that the basis ofknowing is meaning, discovery, words, anduniqueness identifies three features that

distinguish qualitative research approachesfrom a quantitative approach.Qualitative research then is research from and

of the perspective of the subjects under study


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Purpose

The purpose of all qualitative studies is to discover, explore anddescribe phenomena.

More significantly, the purpose of qualitative research is to identifythe dimension of the phenomenon under study from the subjectsviewpoint in order to interpret the totality of the phenomenon

Qualitative research may make its greatest contribution in areas inwhich little research has been done and theory testing cannot be

carried out because the variables related to the concept of interesthave not yet been identified. In clinical practice, the results of a qualitative study may be valued

and useful in their own right, or they may be used to develop orguide a subsequent quantitative or qualitative study.

An researcher would use a qualitative research approach to answerquestion such as What is going on here? What does -----mean to those experiencing it? How do people go about adapting to? What process do people use to cope with?


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Strategies

Rather than being predetermined as it is in a quantitativestudy, the design in a qualitative study is evolving and flexible.

The researcher functions is the data collection instrument andcollects narrative data from a small, purposively chosensample.

Sample size is determined by informational adequacy orsaturation during the data collection process Samples of six to ten individuals are common in qualitative

studies. Typical data-collection strategies include observation,

interview, and document (eg. Records or diaries) review. The researchers relationship with subjects (termed

informants or participants in qualitative study is egalitarianand empathic and involves intense contact.


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Strategies

Where as quantitative researcher emphasisobjectivity, a qualitative researcher relies onsubjectivity to enhance a study. Indeed, theresearchers (subjective) field notes become part ofthe data set in a qualitative study.

In a qualitative study, the data analysis process isongoing, intuitive, and focuses on uncovering themes

and developing explanatory frameworks for aphenomenon.


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Strategies

The outcome of a qualitative study is a rich, real,deep, and valid story that contrasts with the handreplicable and reliable data of a quantitative study.

Because of their subjectivity and because data aregenerated from a small number of subjects,qualitative research findings cannot be generalizedin the traditional (quantitative) sense of the word.

Instead, they can be applied and transferred to otherpersons in similar situations with careful judgmenton the part of the reader.


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Types of qualitative research

The types of qualitative research used most frequently byresearchers are phenomenology, ethnography, andgrounded theory.

Phenomenology

It is specific type of qualitative research that attempts toprovide insider information and develop understandingabout lived experiences

Focus: develop understanding about lived experiences

Generic question: what is the structure and essence of thisexperience?

Methods: unstructured interviews; inductive analysis

Out come: a description of subjects personal meanings of

a experience.


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Ethnography

Focus: provide understanding of cultural norms,rules (survival skills or behaviour), and values.

Generic question: what is the culture of this group ofpeople? How do they behave, and the way they do?

Methods: participant observation, interviews,document review.

Out come: a guide for reorganizing needs;information about survival skills.


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Grounded theory

Focus: eliciting and describing the psychological andsocial process that people use to help them make sense oftheir world and handle problematic situations.

Generic question: what is the experience of (populationof interest) with?

What is the basic social process of .?

Methods: participant observation, interviews, documentreview.

Out come: a substantive theory


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Strengths

All qualitative research studies are generally recognised ashaving the following strengths

The data generated are rich, in-depth, and highly detailed.

The approach uncovers the personal meaning of subjective

experiences, Data are useful for developing individualized responses to

typical experiences

Findings can be used to develop subsequent quantitative andqualitative studies

Because they focus on personal experiences and considercontextual variables, the findings are considered strong interms of validity.

Accounts of qualitative research are generally engaging andeasy to read.


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Limitations

The following characteristics are usually identified aslimitations of qualitative research

Qualitative studies are generally very time-

consuming to conduct Though findings may be selectively transferable, they

are not generalisable in the traditional sense.

Because of the subjective and context dependent

nature of qualitative data, findings are not replicable. Because they are not replicable, qualitative findings

can be hard to sell to decision makers.

Why do we need to study different types of


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Why do we need to study different types ofresearch designs

Reasons to Study the Different Types of Research Designs1. Once you have formulated a research problem, conducted areview of related research, formulated a research hypothesis,described a sample (subjects), and selected one or moremeasuring instruments you are ready to prepare the methodssection of your research proposal or report.

2. The methods section of your proposal should include sectionson a description of the subjects

a description of the instruments to be used in the study

a description of the research design a description of the specific procedures to be followed in your

study.

3. The methods section of your study will be followedby a description of methods you intend to use to

analyze your data.


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Characteristic Quantitative QualitativeReality Stable Personal contextualData Numbers hard data Words soft dataPerspective Outsider Insider

Approach to

knowing Reductionistic Contextual holisticResearch

approach Objective, rational empirical Subjective intuitiveResearch

conditions Controlled, laboratory Naturalistic, fieldworkGoal Verification, test

hypotheses Discovery, generatehypothesesMethods Measurement DescriptionData analysis Deductive ; statistics Inductive, intuitive; themesOutcome Facts Meaning, understandingFindings / results Replicable; reliable;

generalisable Valid, creditable,transferable.

Stereotype of Quantitative and Qualitative research

Choosing a research approach: personal preference consideration


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If you prefer to explore Then choose aIncidencePerformanceFacts

RelationshipsCause and effect

Quantitative approach

MeaningExperienceUnderstandingCulture

AdaptionProcesses


If you prefer to Then choose aCreate questionnairesDesign interventions, develop protocolsWork with numbersWrite concise, factual reports

Quantitative approach

Talk and listenSearch for meaning in wordsWrite expressive essays and stories


Choosing a research approach: personal preference consideration


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Ethical considerations

Consent to participate in a study must be voluntary

A study should be expected to yield worth whileresults

A study should be based on prior knowledge andjustified by anticipated results

Study procedures should avoid unnecessary physicaland mental suffering and injury

A study should not be conducted if there is reason tobelive death or disability will occur, unless theresearcher is the subject


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Risks in a study should never exceed theimportance of the problem to be resolved

Research should be conducted in properly

prepared and adequate facilities byappropriately qualified individuals

Subjects must be able to withdraw from a

study at any time without incurring apenalty


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A study must be terminated if there isreason to believe that continuation couldresult in injury.

Do no harm principle to be followed

Right to self determination

Right to full disclosure

Dilemmas related to the principle of respectfor human dignity

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Chapter-1 Introduction to Research Methodology.

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