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Introduction to Psychology Ms. Koveos chapter 1
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Introduction to Psychology
Ms. Koveos
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What is psychology?The scientific study of behavior and mental life.
Symbolized with a
Empirical
Relying on evidence gathered by careful observation, experimentation, or measurement
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Psychology, pseudoscience, and common sense
Psychobabble and psychology
Not just common sense
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Psychology’s past
Two early psychologies
Functionalism
Psychoanalysis
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FunctionalismEarly psychological approach that emphasized the function or purpose of behavior and consciousness
Interested in how and why something happens
William James (1842-1910), a leader of functionalism
Set the course of psychology as a science
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PsychoanalysisA theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy
Originally formulated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Emphasizes unconscious motives, conflicts, and early life experiences
Set the course of psychology as a method of therapy.
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Your turnThe first field of psychology to ask what the purpose of behavior and consciousness was:
1. Behaviorism
2. Phrenology
3. Psychoanalysis
4. Functionalism
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Major Psychological perspectives Psychodynamic perspective
Biological perspective
Evolutionary perspective
Behavioral perspective
Humanistic perspective
Cognitive perspective
Sociocultural perspective
Eclectic approach
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The psychodynamic perspective
Psychological approach that emphasizes unconscious dynamics within the individual, such as inner forces, conflicts, or the movement of instinctual energy
This perspective involves
Unconscious thoughts, desires, conflicts influence our behavior
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The biological perspective
Psychological approach that focuses on how the body and brain affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts
This perspective involves
Hormones
Brain chemistry
Heredity
Neuroscience
Behavior genetics
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The evolutionary perspective
Psychological approach that emphasizes the ways in which behavior and mental processes are adaptive for survival
This perspective involves
How genetically influenced behavior that was functional or adaptive during evolutionary past may be reflected in our present behaviors, mental process and traits
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The behavioral perspective
Psychological approach that emphasizes people’s observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning
This perspective involves
Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
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Humanist psychology
Psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of human potential, rather than the scientific understanding of behavior
This approach
Rejected behaviorism and psychoanalysis
Emphasized creativity, free will and achieving potential
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The cognitive perspective
Psychological approach that emphasizes what goes on in people’s heads
This perspective involves
Social-cognitive learning theories
Metaphor of the mind as a computer
Cognitive processing including perception, thinking, memory and language
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The sociocultural perspective
Psychological approach that emphasizes social and cultural forces outside the individual
This perspective involves
Social psychology or the study of rules, roles, groups, and relationships
Cultural psychology or the study of cultural norms, values, and expectations
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Psychological Approaches/Perspectives
Psychological Approaches/Perspectives
Your turn
The psychological perspective that emphasizes the “deep,” psychological causes of people’s behavior is:
1. Biological perspective
2. Learning perspective
3. Cognitive perspective
4. Psychodynamic perspective
5. Sociocultural perspective
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What do psychologists do?
1. Providing mental health services
2. Conduct research
3. Work in non academic settings – industry, law, sports, etc
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Psychological practiceCounseling psychologists help people deal with problems associated with everyday life.
School psychologists work with parents, teachers, and students to enhance student performance.
Clinical psychologists diagnose, treat, and study mental or emotional problems.
Psychiatrists are medical doctors (M.D.) and focus on biological causes, diagnose and treat them with medication.
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Psychological research
Research in areas of basic or applied psychology
Examples:
Experimental psychologists
Educational psychologists
Developmental psychologists
Industrial/organizational psychologists
Psychometric psychologists
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Psychologists in other settings
Sports
Consumer issues
Advertising
Organizational problems
Environmental issues
Public policy
Opinion polls
Military training
Animal behavior
Legal issues
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Three methods used to answer the question “why”
I. Descriptive Studies – establishing the facts
II. Correlational Studies – looking for relationships
III. The Experiment – hunting for the causes
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1. Descriptive Methods
Methods that yield descriptions of behavior, but not necessarily causal explanations, may or may not be applicable to general population.
Include
1. Case studies
2. Observational studies
3. Psychological tests
4. Surveys
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Case study example:
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Descriptive Methods: 1. Case studies
A detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated, which may be used to formulate broader research hypotheses
Most commonly used by clinicians; occasionally used by researchers
Positive Aspects: provide unique insight into who we are
Drawbacks: information is missing, hard to interpret, not necessarily applicable to general population
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Descriptive methods: 2. Observational studiesResearchers carefully and systematically observe and record behavior without interfering with behavior
Naturalistic observation
Observe how people behave in their natural environments without controlling the situation.
Laboratory observation
Purpose is to observe how people behave in a more controlled setting.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zWsyIVVvDdw&feature=player_detailpage
Descriptive methods: 3. Psychological testsProcedures used to measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, and values
Psychological tests can be objective or projective.
Characteristics of a good test include
Standardization
Reliability
Validity
StandardizationThe test is constructed to include uniform procedures for giving and scoring the test.
In order to score tests in a standardized way, an individual’s outcome or score is compared to norms.
To establish norms, the test is given to a large group of people who are similar to those for whom the test is intended.
By having norms or established standards of performance, we know who scores low, average, or high.
ReliabilityWhen constructing a test, the scores achieved on the test at one time and place should be consistent with the scores achieved at another time and place.
ValidityThe ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure
Descriptive methods: 4. Surveys
Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about experiences, attitudes, or opinions
Drawbacks: 1. volunteer bias 2. people lie
Can be extremely informative but must be conducted and interpreted carefully!
Two cautions: 1. how questions are phrased 2. must use words people understand
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lysWbzQyiWw
II. Correlational Study
A study that looks for a consistent relationship between two phenomena (variables)
Correlation
A statistical measure of how strongly two variables are related to one another.
Correlational coefficients can range from 0.0 – 1.0.
Direction of correlations
Positive correlations
An increase in one variable and increases in another, or a decrease in one variable and a decrease in the other.
Negative correlations
An increase in one variable and a decrease in another.
ScatterplotsCorrelations can be represented by scatterplots.
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Your turn
What kind of correlation is this?
1. Positive
2. Negative
3. No correlation
Explaining correlationsCorrelations show patterns, not causes.
They help to predict
Correlation does not mean causation!
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Explain the following:In a small Midwestern town a police chief discovered that as ice cream consumption increases, the crime rate increases. As people eat less ice cream, the crime rate decreases. What explains this relationship?
Why do children with bigger feet spell better?
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3. The ExperimentA controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another.
An experiment includes variables of interest, control conditions, and random assignment.
This is the only method of research that gives you a cause and effect!
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Components of an Experiment
1. Theory – “hunch”
2. Hypothesis - testable prediction about the outcome of research
Let’s look at an example…
• Theory - Low self esteem feeds depression
• Hypothesis - People with low self esteem will score higher on a depression scale.
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Components of an Experiment
Hypothesis - testable prediction about the outcome of research
Your turn:
A psychologist takes two groups: one that is given a painkiller for migraine headaches and one that is given a placebo. Neither group knows about the presence of the placebo. The psychologist tests the patients after two hours to see if the headache still remains
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Components of an Experiment
Operational Definition – specify how the phenomena in question are to be observed and measured
Let’s look at an example…
• People with low self esteem will score higher on a depression scale.
• Operational Definition:
“Depression” can be defined operationally as a higher score on a depression scale.
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Components of an Experiment
2. Operational Definition – specify how the phenomena in question are to be observed and measured
Your turn:
Justin Bieber is the best musician ever.
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Components of an Experiment
3. Independent variables Variables the experimenter manipulates
4. Dependent variables Variables the experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable(s)
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Components of an Experiment
3. Independent variables Variables the experimenter manipulates
4. Dependent variables Variables the experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable(s)
Let’s look at an example…
•Developmental psychologists want to know if exposing children to public television improves their reading skills.
IV: Exposure to public television
DV: Reading skills
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Your turnAn experimenter wants to study the effects of music on studying. He has some students study while listening to music and others study in silence, and then compares their test scores. What is the independent variable in this experiment?
1. The students
2. The presence of music while studying
3. The kind of music
4. The test scores
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Let’s look at an example…An experimenter wants to study the effects of music on studying. He has some students study while listening to music and others study in silence, and then compares their test scores. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
1. The students
2. The presence of music while studying
3. The kind of music
4. The test scores
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Control conditions
In an experiment, a comparison condition in which subjects are not exposed to the same treatment as in the experimental condition.
In some experiments, the control group is given a placebo, an inactive substance or fake treatment.
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Random assignment
For experiments to have experimental and control groups composed of similar subjects, random assignment should be used.
Each individual participating in the study has the same probability as any other of being assigned to a given group.
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Experimenter effectsUnintended changes in subjects’ behavior due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter.
Strategies for preventing experimenter effects include single- and double-blind studies.
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Advantages and Limitations of Experiments
Advantages:
1. allow conclusions about cause and effect 2. permit researchers to distinguish real effects from
placebo effects
Limitations:
1. participants are not always representative of the greater population
2. participants may not act normally in effort to please the researcher
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Comparing Research Methods
Descriptive statisticsStatistical procedures that organize and summarize research data
Examples
Arithmetic mean
Standard deviation
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Inferential statisticsStatistical procedures that allow researchers to draw inferences about how statistically meaningful a study’s results are.
The most commonly used inferential statistics are significance tests.
Statistical tests that show how likely it is that a study’s results occurred merely by chance
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Choosing the best explanation
Interpretation of results may depend on how the research was conducted.
Cross-sectional studiesSubjects of different ages are compared at a single time.
Longitudinal studies
Subjects are periodically assessed over a period of time.
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Judging the results’ importance
Statistical techniques can help determine if results are really important.
Meta-analysis is a procedure for combining and analyzing data from many studies. It determines how much of the variance in scores across all studies can be explained by a particular variable.
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Critical thinking guidelinesAsk questions
Define your terms
Examine the evidence
Analyze assumptions and biases
Avoid emotional reasoning
Don’t oversimplify
Consider other interpretations
Tolerate uncertainty
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Ethical Considerations In Using Human Subjects
The Stanford Prison Study – by Philip Zimbardo (1972) Tested the psychological and emotional effects of the prison experience on inmates and guards.
Hypothesis – Your environment (the situation) will determine how you behave more strongly than who you are (your internal nature).
Participants – 24 college men, randomly assigned to role of prisoner or guard (prisoners were required to stay in “prison” 24/7
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FkmQZjZSjk4
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Ethical Considerations In Using Human Subjects
1. The investigator is personally responsible for the ethical acceptability of the research and should consult others when there is any doubt.
2. The investigator is responsible for the ethical conduct of all who work with him or her, although all involved have ethical obligations.
3. Prospective research participants have a right to be as fully informed as possible about the nature of the experiment – this is know as obtaining the individual’s informed consent.
4. The investigator should maximize openness and honestly with participants and minimize deceit. If the true purpose of the experiment must be concealed, the participant should be fully informed after the experiment as to why this deception was necessary.
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Ethical Considerations In Using Human Subjects
5. People may not be coerced into participating, and they must be allowed to withdraw from participation at any time.
6. The investigator must make clear to participants what agreement is being made between the two parties (participant and experimenter) and must honor any commitments made to the participants.
7. The investigator must minimize discomfort and protect participants from harm and danger. If any of these are likely to be involved, the participants must be fully informed of the risks. Procedures involving any serious and lasting harm are forbidden.
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