What can psychology do? Psychology can help us understand How
culture may influence personality Why you find some people
attractive but not others What IQ test scores really mean How
prejudice forms How different are men and women? Why buying lottery
tickets can be so addictive
Slide 3
Why Study Psychology??? Help understand why people (and
animals) behave the way they do How brain and body are connected
How do improve learning abilities and memory How to deal with life
stresses Very important: Understanding of research methods in
psychology because research can be flawed Critical thinking
Evaluation of research, advertisements, and politicians
Slide 4
What is psychology? Psychology the scientific study of behavior
and mental processes Behavior all outward or overt actions and
reactions (i.e., talking, facial expressions, movement) Mental
processes all the internal, covert activity of our minds (i.e.,
thinking, feeling, remembering) Psychology is scientific In
observation of behavior must avoid bias or the possibility of
seeing only what you expect to see Bias personal judgments based on
beliefs rather than facts Bias leads to faulty observations Thus,
psychologists use the scientific method
Slide 5
4 Goals of Psychology - Description 1 st Goal - description
Provides observations Observing a behavior and noting everything
about it What is happening, where it happens, who it happens to,
and under what circumstances Example: Why are so many computer
scientists male? Description: through observations you note that
many non-techies hold stereotypical views of the life and
environment of computer scientists Surrounded by computer games,
junk food, science-fiction gadgets, love star trek = masculine
environment These observations seem to add up to a more masculine
view of computer scientists Descriptions lead to the next goal: Why
do females seem to avoid this environment
Slide 6
4 Goals of Psychology - Explanation 2 nd Goal - explanation
Based on observations, the next step is attempting to explain those
observations Example: finding an explanation for the lower
proportion of women in computer science possible explanation: women
may feel they do not belong in such a stereotypically masculine
environment Finding explanations is an important step in the
process of forming theories of behavior Theory a general
explanation of a set of observations or facts
Slide 7
4 Goals of Psychology - Prediction 3 rd Goal: prediction
Prediction determining what will happen in the future Example: if
we want more women to go into computer science, we must do
something to either: Change the environment Change the perception
of the environment typically associated with this field
Slide 8
4 Goals of Psychology - Control 4 th Goal: control modification
of some behavior Purpose is to change an undesirable behavior to a
desirable one Example: change behaviors to promote more equality in
career choices Changing the image of computer science as a field
may help increase the number of women choosing to go into this
field
Slide 9
4 Goals of Psychology Not all psychological investigations try
to meet all 4 of the goals Some may focus on description and
prediction Ex. Personality theorist who wants to know what people
are like (description) and what they might do in certain situations
(prediction) Some may focus on description and explanation Ex.
Experimental psychologists who designs research to find
explanations for observed (described) behavior Therapists may be
more interested in controlling or influencing behavior and mental
processes But, the other three goals would be important in
achieving this objective
Slide 10
History of Psychology Field has only officially existed for
about 130 years Before psychology, behavior was studied by
philosophers, medical doctors, and physiologists Philosophers tried
to understand/explain the human mind and its connection to the
physical body Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) soul and body were both part
of the same underlying structure Plato (427-347 B.C.) soul exists
separate from the body (dualism) Rene Descartes (17 th -century
French philosopher/mathematician) dualism, suggested that the
pineal gland (small organ at the base of the brain) was the link
between the soul and body
Slide 11
History of Psychology Medical doctors and physiologists studied
the physical connection between the body and the brain Gustav
Fechner (physician/physicist) credited with some of the first
scientific experiments that formed a basis for psychological
studies of perception Hermann von Helmholtz (physician) performed
groundbreaking experiments in visual and auditory perception
Slide 12
History: Wundt and Introspection Wilhelm Wundt (physiologist)
father of psychology 1 st attempt to bring objectivity and
measurement to psychology 1 st psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany 1879 Believed the mind was made up of thoughts,
experiences, emotions, etc. Objective introspection the process of
objectively examining and measuring ones own thoughts and mental
activities Ex. A rock is placed in your hand, you note everything
that you feel as a result of having a rock in your hand (i.e.,
sensations stimulated by the rock, how heavy it is, its texture
etc.)
Slide 13
History: Titchener & Structuralism Edward Titchener
(1867-1927) Cornell University - Wundts student Expanded Wundts
ideas into a new viewpoint called structuralism (because the focus
was on the structure of the mind) Believed every experience could
be broken down into its individual emotions and sensations Believed
objective introspection could be used on thoughts in addition to
physical sensations Ex. What is blue? there are blue things, like
the sky. Blue is cool and restful, blue is calm etc. There is no
actual object, just introspection regarding your thoughts about
blue Structuralism was an early dominant viewpoint in psychology,
but died out in the early 1900s Interesting tidbit: Titchener
graduated the first female Ph.D in psychology, Margaret F.
Washburn, in 1894
Slide 14
History: James & Functionalism William James (1842-1910)
Harvard University Wrote Principles of Psychology, a comprehensive
book on psychology (still in print today) Opposed structuralism
More interested in the importance of consciousness to everyday life
(rather than just its analysis like Wundt and Titchener) However,
believed the study of consciousness itself was not yet possible
(because consciousness is an ever-changing stream) Focused on
functionalism - how the mind allows people to function in the real
world How people work, play, and adapt to their surroundings
Interesting tidbit: Harvard was the 1 st school in America to offer
classes in psychology
Slide 15
History: James & Functionalism (cont.) Functionalism was
largely influenced by Charles Darwins ideas about natural selection
(i.e., physical traits that help an animal adapt and survive are
passed on to its offspring) Behavioral traits could also be
adaptive Animals and people whose behavior helped them survive
would pass those traits to their offspring, via teaching or a
mechanism of heredity Example: Behavior like avoiding eye-contact
in a crowded elevator can be seen as a way of protecting ones
personal space May be rooted in the primitive need to protect ones
home from intruders or as a way of avoiding what might seem like a
challenge to another person Functionalism is no longer a major
viewpoint in psychology but its elements can be found in the modern
fields of educational psychology and industrial/organizational
psychology
Slide 16
Early Sexism in Psychology Mary Whiton Calkins one of James
early students Completed every credit and requirement for a Ph.D.
under James at Harvard Denied a Ph.D. because she was a woman
Eventually established a psychological laboratory at Wellesly
College for women Conducted some of the earliest research in the
area of human memory and the psychology of the self 1905 became the
first female president of the American Psychological Association
Unlike Washburn, Calkins never earned a Ph.D. despite a successful
career as a professor and researcher
Slide 17
Early Minority Influences in Psychology Francis Cecil Sumner in
1920 first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology at Clark
University Known as the father of African American psychology
Kenneth & Mamie Clark worked to show the negative effects of
school segregation on African American children Jorge Sanchez early
Hispanic psychologist who conducted research on intelligence
testing, focusing on the cultural biases in the tests.
Slide 18
History: Gestalt Psychology - The whole is greater than the sum
of its parts Max Wertheimer (German) objected to structuralism
Psychological events such as perceiving and sensing could not be
broken down into smaller elements and still be properly understood
Ex. If you take an ipod apart, you no longer have an ipod, just a
bunch of unconnected bits and pieces Gestalt Psychology Focus on
studying whole patterns rather than small pieces of them People
naturally seek out patterns (wholes) in the sensory information
available to them Today Gestalt ideas are part of cognitive
psychology as well as other areas
Slide 19
History: Sigmund Freud & Theory of Psychoanalysis During
the rise of structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt psychology
Sigmund Freud neurologist in Austria focusing on disorders of the
central nervous system Attempting to understand nervous disorders
with no physical cause Suggested existence of an unconscious
(unaware) mind into which we push, or repress, all of our
threatening urges and desires Believed repressed urges, trying to
surface, created nervous disorders Believed phobias (irrational
fears) were a symptom of an underlying, repressed conflict
Slide 20
History: Sigmund Freud & Theory of Psychoanalysis cont.
Freud stressed importance of early childhood experiences Believed
personality was formed in the first 6 years of life If an
individual had significant problems, the problems must have begun
in the early years of life Psychoanalysis the theory and therapy
based on Freuds ideas Basis of much modern psychotherapy (a process
in which a trained psychological professional helps a person gain
insight into and change his or her behavior)
Slide 21
History: Pavlov & Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Russian
physiologist Pavlovs Conditioning - Showed that a reflex (an
involuntary reaction) could be caused to occur in response to a
formerly unrelated stimulus Dog study:
Slide 22
History: Behaviorism & Watson John B. Watson Challenged
structuralism, functionalism, and psychoanalysis Behaviorism
science of behavior focuses only on observable behavior Completely
ignored consciousness and focused only on observable behavior
(something that could be directly seen and measured) Believed all
behavior is learned Believed that phobias are learned through the
process of conditioning Took Pavlovs classical conditioning and
applied it to humans
Slide 23
Watson & The Little Albert Study Watson, in opposition to
Freud, wanted to show that phobias were learned through the process
of conditioning Prior to conditioning, Albert showed no fear when
presented with a white rat Next, every time Albert was presented
with the rat Watson made a loud, frightening noise behind him After
multiple parings of the rat and the noise Albert showed fear when
presented with the rat
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE
Slide 24
Modern Perspectives Psychodynamic Perspective Modern version of
Freuds psychoanalysis Less focused on sex and sexual motivations
than Freuds psychoanalysis More focused on the development of sense
of self, social and interpersonal relationships, and the discovery
of other motivations behind behavior Behavioral Perspective After
Watson, B.F. Skinner became the new leader of the field Skinner
theory of operant conditioning behavioral responses that are
followed by pleasurable consequences are strengthened, or
reinforced; behaviors followed by negative consequences will
diminish over time (called punishment) We will discuss this more in
chapter 5
Slide 25
Modern Perspectives Humanistic Perspective Known as the third
force in psychology Founded by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers in
early 1900s Contrast to psychoanalysis and behaviorism Focused on
peoples ability to direct their own lives People have free will the
freedom to choose their own destiny People strive for
self-actualization the achievement of ones full potential
Slide 26
Modern Perspectives Cognitive Perspective Became a major force
in the 1960s Focuses on how people think, remember, store, and use
information Includes memory, intelligence, perception, thought
processes, problem solving, language, and learning Compares the
brain to a computer Cognitive neuroscience New field studying the
physical workings of the brain and nervous system when engaged in
memory, thinking, and other processes Use MRI, fMRI, PET to study
the structure and activity of the living brain
Slide 27
Modern Perspectives Sociocultural Perspective Combines two
areas of psychology: Social psychology the study of groups, social
roles, and rules of social actions and relationships Cultural
psychology the study of cultural norms, values, and expectations
Focus on the effect that people have on one another, either
individually or in a larger group The way people behave (or even
think) is influenced by who is around whether alone, with friends,
in a crowd, or part of a group As well as by social norms, fads,
class differences, and ethnic identity of the particular culture in
which they live
Slide 28
Modern Perspectives Biopsychological Perspective The study of
the biological bases of behavior and mental processes Human and
animal behavior is seen as a direct result of events in the body
Causes of behavior and mental events: hormones, heredity, brain
chemicals, tumors, and diseases Study topics such as sleep,
emotions, aggression, sexual behavior, learning, memory, mental
disorders Disorders may have multiple causes but focus if placed on
biological factors Ex. Genetic and hormonal causes of
schizophrenia
Slide 29
Modern Perspectives Evolutionary Perspective Focus on the
biological basis for universal mental characteristics that all
humans share Seeks to explain general mental strategies and traits
Ex. Why people lie, how attractiveness influences mate selection,
why fear of snakes is so common Mind is seen as a set of
information-processing machines, designed by the process of natural
selection, allowing humans to solve the problems they faced in the
early days of evolution Ex. Behavior of not eating things with a
bitter taste most likely evolved as early humans came into contact
with bitter plants that were most likely poisonous. Humans who
didnt eat the plant survived to pass on their genes Ex. Difference
between men and women in response to sexual vs. emotional
infidelity
Slide 30
Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization
Psychology is a large field with many areas of specialization
requiring different training Refer to Figure 1.2 in the textbook
Largest subfield of psychology is clinical psychology Largest
percentage (35%) of psychologists work at 4-year universities
PsychologistsPsychiatrists No medical trainingMedical training
Doctorate degree (Ph.D.)Medical Doctor (M.D.) Many areas of
specializationSpecialize in diagnosis/treatment of psychological
disorders Not able to prescribe medicationAble to prescribe
medication
Slide 31
Psychology: Scientific Methodology Scientific method a system
for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data System aids
psychologists in accomplishing the 4 goals
(remember?...description, explanation, prediction, and control) 5
Steps Perceiving the question Forming a hypothesis Testing the
hypothesis Drawing conclusions Reporting results
Slide 32
Scientific Method Step 1 - Perceiving the Question Notice
something interesting and want and explanation Goal of description
Ex. Notice that your kids seem more aggressive with each other
after watching a violent cartoon on Saturday mornings Step 2
Forming a Hypothesis Hypothesis (educated guess) tentative
explanation for your observations Statement that can be tested in
some way Hypothesis children who watch violent cartoons become more
aggressive Goal of description and explanation
Slide 33
Scientific Method Step 3 Testing the Hypothesis Must avoid
confirmation bias (the tendency to only notice things that agree
with ones view of the world) Scientific method seeks to avoid bias
by forcing researchers to seek out information that may contradict
their biases Thats why psychologists do research over and over, to
gain more support for their hypothesis Testing method selected
depends on what kind of answer you think you may get More detailed
observations Survey asking questions to a large number of people
Experiment in which you deliberately change one thing to see if it
causes changes in the behavior you are studying What do you think
is the best way to test our kids & cartoons example?
Slide 34
Scientific Method Experiment: 2 groups of kids Group 1 Group 2
Watch Violent Cartoon Watch Nonviolent Cartoon Measure kids
aggressive behavior
Slide 35
Scientific Method Step 4 Drawing Conclusions Results of
hypothesis testing can either support or not support your
hypothesis Support: experiment worked! Measurements supported
initial observations Ex. If kids who watched the violent cartoon
were more aggressive than kids who watched the nonviolent cartoon
Not Supported: back to square 1! Think of other possible
explanations for what was observed Ex. No difference in aggression
between group 1 and group 2 maybe kids are just more aggressive on
Saturday mornings, maybe its the breakfast they eat on Saturdays?
Goal of prediction if hypothesis was supported, then you can make
educated guesses about future, similar scenarios
Slide 36
Scientific Method Step 5 Report Your Results Once you have come
to a conclusion, you want to let other researchers know what you
found even if your hypothesis was not supported Write up exactly
what you did, why you did it, how you did it, and what was found
Others may replicate (do exactly the same thing you did) and add
support to your findings Peer reviewed journals, posters and
speaking at conferences, etc. Even if your experiment didnt work
Maybe poor study design Maybe other outside factors effected
results Show other researchers what doesnt work so the same
unsuccessful experiments arent repeated Add more to knowledge base
Goal of control findings may help to make predictions and
ultimately modify or control behavior
Slide 37
Descriptive Methods: Naturalistic Observation AGAIN: method
depends on the kind of question to be answered Naturalistic
Observation Observing people/animals in their normal environment
Animals natural habitat, where they eat, play, sleep, and mate
People workplaces, homes, social settings, playgrounds Advantage:
realistic picture of how behavior occurs in its natural setting
Observer should have a list of well-defined, specific behaviors
Avoid observer effect (when animals or people dont behave normally
because they know theyre being watched) Usually want to be
hidden
Slide 38
Descriptive Methods: Naturalistic Observation (cont.)
Disadvantages Observer bias observer only recognizes actions that
support their opinion and ignores actions that contradict it How to
avoid: use blind observers (people who dont know what the research
question is, so they cant have preconceptions) How to avoid: use
multiple observers so observations can be compared Lack of control
Cannot ensure that each time behavior is observed the setting will
be exactly the same Observations that are made at one time in one
setting may not hold true for another time, even in a similar
setting
Slide 39
Descriptive Methods: Laboratory Observation Sometimes its not
practical to observe people/animals in their natural setting
Advantage: allows researcher control over the setting Can ensure
that environment is the same for each observation Disadvantage:
artificial situation People/animals tend to behave differently in
the laboratory than they would in the real world
Slide 40
Descriptive Methods: Case Studies In depth study of a single
individual Try to learn everything possible about that individual
Advantage: tremendous amount of detail Advantage: may be the only
way to get certain kinds of information Ex. Traumatic brain injury
Disadvantage: cant generalize to other similar cases Cant assume
that if another person had the same kind of experiences he/she
would turn out the same as the individual in the case study
Disadvantage: vulnerable to bias on the part of the researcher
Slide 41
Descriptive Methods: Surveys Good way to gain information about
private behaviors (ex. Sexual behavior) Ask a series of questions
about the topic being studied Can be conducted in person
(interviews), over the phone, internet, or with a questionnaire
Advantage: can ask lots of questions and survey a large number of
people Disadvantage: must be careful about the group of people
surveyed Population group of interest in the study Ex. College
freshman Representative sample sample that accurately represents
the target population Ex. Cant survey every single college
freshman, but can randomly survey groups of freshman from several
different colleges Selection is random (ex. If you only surveyed
freshman from Ivy League colleges, not all types of freshman will
be represented in the sample) Disadvantage: peoples answers arent
always accurate Misremembering, distorting the truth, outright
lying
Slide 42
Finding Relationships: Correlation Correlation a measure of the
relationship between two or more variables Variable anything that
can change or vary (ex. Test scores, room temperature, gender,
etc.) Example: is cigarette smoking connected to life expectancy
(the # of years a person can be expected to live)? Could look at
medical records: see # of cigarettes smoked per day and the age
people were when they died Information related to these 2 variables
are entered into an equation which produces a correlation
coefficient Correlation coefficient # that represents 2 things: the
direction and strength of the relationship between variables
Slide 43
Finding Relationships: Correlation When 2 variables are
related, it means that if you know the value of one, you can
predict the value of the other Ex. Smoking and life expectancy are
related, knowing how many cigarettes a person smokes a day would
allow you to predict how long they will live Direction - as # of
cigarettes goes up, does life expectancy go up or down? Correlation
coefficient (represented by r) will either be a positive or a
negative # Positive variables increase and decrease in the same
direction, if one increases, so does the other, if one decreases,
so does the other Negative inverse relationship, if one increases
the other decreases Ex. If as # of cigarettes increases, life
expectancy decreases, then the relationship is negative or
inverse
Slide 44
Finding Relationships: Correlation Strength of the relationship
is determined by the actual value of the correlation coefficient
Can range between +1.00 and -1.00 The stronger the relationship the
closer the correlation coefficient will be to either +1.00 or -1.00
(weaker relationships will be close to 0) Ex. 0.89 is a strong
positive correlation Ex. -0.89 is a strong negative correlation
Example: if the correlation coefficient between smoking and life
expectancy was r = -0.87, this would represent a strong negative
correlation, as one variable increases, the other decreases
Slide 45
Finding Relationships: Correlation
Slide 46
IMPORTANT: just because there is a correlation between 2
variables DOES NOT mean that one causes the other! Causation cannot
be determined from correlation There could be a 3 rd variable, not
measured in the study, that causes the relationship Ex.
Relationship between smoking and life expectancy could be due to
the tendency of people who smoke to not take very good care of
their health in general Correlation can provide the starting point
for examining causal relationships with an experiment
Slide 47
Finding Relationships: Experiment Only method that allows for
determining cause Deliberately manipulate (change) the variable you
think is causing some behavior while keeping all other variables
that may effect the relationship constant and unchanging This way,
if the behavior changes (i.e. an effect), it must be due to the
changes in the manipulated variable Example: effects of watching
violent cartoons on kids aggressive behavior First, must select
kids to use in the experiment Determine age range of interest (ex.
3-4 years old) Randomly select a certain # of kids in that age
range (from daycares or pediatricians offices maybe)
Slide 48
Finding Relationships: Experiment independent variable - the
variable to be manipulated the one thought to be causing the change
in behavior Independent because it is independent of anything the
participants do Ex. Cartoon violence dependent variable - the
variable to be measured to see if there are any changes this is the
effect of the manipulation on behavior Dependent because it depends
on the manipulation of the independent variable Ex. Kids aggressive
behavior Must define both the manipulated variable and the measured
variable Operational definition specifically names the operations
(steps or procedures) that must be used to control or measure the
variables in the experiment Ex. Aggressive behavior checklist:
hitting, pushing, etc.
Slide 49
Finding Relationships: Experiment Confounding variables
variables that interfere with each other and may have an effect on
the relationship being measured Must be controlled Ex. Some kids
may just be more aggressive in general, or maybe kids tend to be
more aggressive at the particular time of day they were observed
Best way to avoid confounding variables is to use 2 groups One
group watches a violent cartoon One group watches a nonviolent
cartoon for the same amount of time
Slide 50
Finding Relationships: Experiment Experimental Group group that
receives the manipulation Control Group group that receives no
treatment or a treatment that should have no effect If both groups
were equally aggressive then the violent cartoon did not effect
behavior Experimental Group Control Group Watch Violent Cartoon
Watch Nonviolent Cartoon Measure kids aggressive behavior
Slide 51
Finding Relationships: Experiment Random assignment randomly
assigning participants to either the experimental or control
condition Means that each participant has an equal chance of being
assigned to each condition (experimental or control) Best way to
ensure control over interfering or extraneous variables
Slide 52
Finding Relationships: Experiment Experimental Hazards Placebo
effect when participants expectations or beliefs about a study
effect their behavior in the experiment more likely when studying
people rather than animals Ex. Studying the effects of a new drug,
participants expect behavior to improve because they believe thats
what the drug is supposed to do Avoid by using a control group who
receives a placebo (which has no effect)
Slide 53
Finding Relationships: Experiment Experimental Hazards
Experimenter effect similar to bias while measuring the dependent
variable, the researcher gives participants clues about how they
are supposed to respond Can be through body language, tone of
voice, eye contact Ex. Alzheimers patient is taking a 2 nd memory
test after receiving an experimental drug, experimenter pays a
excessive amount of attention to each answer the participant gives
Participant may think he/she should have improved a lot and tries
really hard on the test, thus improvement is due to the patients
increased effort, not to the drug
Slide 54
Finding Relationships: Experiment Single-blind study
participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental
group or the control group Unaware if they are receiving the
manipulation or not Ex. Testing a new drug: experimental group gets
the drug, control group gets a sugar pill, but are unaware which
they were given Reduces the placebo effect because results of both
groups are compared, even if both groups improve due to placebo
effect, the experimental group should improve more if the drug is
effective
Slide 55
Finding Relationships: Experiment Double-blind study both
participants and experimenters measuring behavior are unaware of
which condition (experimental or control) participants are in Helps
reduce experimenter bias experimenter cannot give clues if they are
unaware of what should be happening Every element is coded in some
way so that only after all the measurements have been taken can it
be determined who was in which group
Slide 56
Finding Relationships: Quasi- Experimental Alternative research
design used when participants cannot be randomly assigned to
experimental or control groups This is why its only quasi
experimental, lack of random assignment to groups These studies are
not considered true experiments Example: how does age influence
behavior? Age independent variable Cant just randomly assign
participants to be a certain age Example: behavior differences
between men and women Gender independent variable Cant randomly
assign participants to be either men or women
Slide 57
Ethics of Psychological Research Remember the Little Albert
experiment? Seems pretty cruel right? People who volunteer to
participate in studies should be able to expect that no physical or
psychological harm will come to them Institutional Review Boards
(IRB) groups of psychologists or other professionals who look over
each proposed study and judge it according to its safety and
consideration for the research participants Analyze all aspects of
each proposed study (written materials, participant consent forms,
equipment used in the study, etc)
Slide 58
Guidelines for doing research with people 1) Rights and
well-being of participants must be weighed against the studys value
to science People come first, research comes second 2) Participants
must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation
Informed consent - Before researchers can do ANYTHING, participants
must be informed in terms that they understand what will happen
during their participation If participants are minors, parents must
be informed 3) Deception must be justified Sometimes it is
necessary to deceive participants Debriefing - After the study,
participants must be informed of the deception used and why it was
important
Slide 59
Guidelines for doing research with people 4) Participants may
withdraw from the study at any time for any reason Ex. If
participants get bored or uncomfortable 5) Participants must be
protected from risks or told explicitly about risks Ex. If using
electrical equipment, care must be taken to ensure no participant
is shocked 6) Investigators must debrief participants, telling the
true nature of the study and expectations of results Especially
important in studies involving deception
Slide 60
Guidelines for doing research with people 7) Data must remain
confidential Importance of confidentiality Report only group
results so that no one can be identified 8) If for any reason a
study results in undesirable consequences for the participant, the
researcher is responsible for detecting and removing, or
correcting, these consequences Sometimes people react to
manipulations in unexpected ways Researchers is responsible for
helping individuals overcome negative impacts of the study
Slide 61
Research on Animals Using animals aids in answering research
questions that would be impossible using people Easier to control,
engage in simpler behavior so easier to see effects of
manipulations Animal research has played key roles in the
development of vaccines for deadly diseases, insulin treatments for
diabetics, transplant surgeries, etc Major guideline must avoid
exposing research animals to any unnecessary pain or suffering Ex.
If study involves surgery, must use anesthesia Ex. If the animal
must be killed to study postmortem effects, death must be
accomplished in the most humane way possible
Slide 62
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About
Critical Thinking Critical thinking making reasoned judgments
Reasoned judgments should be logical and well thought-out Includes
the ability to ask and seek answers for critical questions Ex. Do
you have any good evidence for your assertions, or are you just
giving your opinion? Example: I should think more critically about
products on infomercials Then maybe I wouldnt have wasted $ on a
Pasta Boat but I still think the Snuggie was a good decision
Slide 63
4 Basic Criteria for Critical Thinking 1) There are very few
truths that do not need to be subjected to testing Questions that
can be investigated empirically should be examined using
established scientific methods Ex. Many people still believe in
Astrology, but scientific investigations have shown time after time
that astrology has no basis in truth or scientific fact 2) All
evidence is not equal in quality Evidence should be evaluated
before deciding it is good support for some idea Poorly done
experiments, incorrect assumptions based on correlations, studies
that could not be replicated, studies using no control group, no
examination of placebo or experimenter effects, deliberate
manipulations of findings Ex. How much evidence is there really to
support alien visitation Ex. Faked data led to thousands of parents
refusing to allow their children to be vaccinated because they
believed vaccinations caused Autism which has in turn led to the
resurfacing of diseases that were nearly eliminated
Slide 64
4 Basic Criteria for Critical Thinking 3) Just because someone
is considered to be an authority or to have a lot of expertise does
not make everything that person claims automatically true Should
never just take an experts word for it, always ask to see the
evidence If there are two explanations for some phenomenon the
simplest one is more often the best one (known as the rule of
parsimony) Example: Crop circles 2 explanations: either made by
aliens in space ships (as claimed by many experts) or made by
humans as a hoax Obviously, the hoax explanation is the simplest
And it turned out to be correct for the crop circles that appeared
in England in the 1970s and 1980s (the pranksters, Doug Bower and
Dave Chorley, came clean about making the circles in 1991)
Slide 65
4 Basic Criteria for Critical Thinking 4) Critical thinking
requires an open mind Good to be skeptical but shouldnt close your
mind to things that are truly possible Balance between skepticism
and willingness to consider other possibilities even possibilities
that contradict previous judgments or beliefs Example: there is not
yet any convincing evidence that there was once life on Mars But
that doesnt mean scientists dismiss the idea, just no convincing
evidence yet