Chapter 1Chapter 1

Thinking Thinking GeographicallyGeographically

Key IssuesKey Issues

1. How do geographers describe where things are?

2. Why is each point on Earth unique?

3. Why are different places similar?

An In-depth Social An In-depth Social Science Science

•Many people have misconceptions about geography and think of the discipline as simply an exercise in memorizing place names.

• Geography exists in the global issues receiving attention at this time. Things such as…

▫ Population growth

▫ Terrorism

▫ Cultural diffusion.

Diffusion is defined as the spread of linguistic or cultural practices or innovations within a community or from one community to another.

Where we find Where we find GeographyGeography

Location, Location, Location, Location, LocationLocation• Geography's importance can also be established

by looking at community issues, such as:

▫ Water supply

▫ Pollution

▫ Growth management

▫ Housing

▫ Retail

Openings

Closures

Thinking Thinking GeographicallyGeographically• In addition to political rule, boundaries can be

drawn based on various components of culture including language, religion, values.

• Where would the most desirable places to live be located?

• What impacts would this population increase cause?

Questions to PonderQuestions to Ponder

Every Story Can be approached Every Story Can be approached from a Geographer’s Perspectivefrom a Geographer’s Perspective

• Consider natural events and natural disasters.

• Do humans choose to live in harm’s way?

Spatial analysisSpatial analysis

• Geography by its nature is a spatial science. Geographers therefore study space in order to locate the distribution of people and objects.

• Geographers ask two main questions, “where” and “why.” Spatial analysis is concerned with analyzing regularities achieved through interaction. Regularities result in a distinctive distribution of a feature.

• Distribution has three properties:▫ Density▫ Concentration▫ Pattern

RelevanceRelevance

• Geographers observe that people are being pulled in opposite directions by two different factors: globalization and local diversity.

• Tensions between these simultaneous geographic trends underlie many of the world’s problems that geographers study.▫ Political conflicts▫ Economic uncertainty▫ Pollution of the environment

MapsMaps

• The most important tool for geographers is a map.▫ Two-dimensional or flat-scale model of Earth’s surface, or

a portion of it.▫ Cartography: the science of mapmaking.

• Serve two purposes▫ Tool for storing reference material.▫ Tool for communicating geographic information.

• Often the best means for showing the distribution of human activities or physical features, as well as thinking about reasons underlying a distribution.

ProjectionProjection

•The method of transferring location on Earth’s surface to a flat map is called projection.

•Earth’s spherical shape poses a challenge for cartographers because drawing Earth on a flat surface unavoidably produces distortion.

DistortionDistortion

• Four types of distortion

▫ Shape

▫ Distance

▫ Relative size

▫ Direction between points

Examples of Map Examples of Map ProjectionsProjections

Robinson Projection

Azimuthal Projection

Goode’s Interrupted Projection

Map ScaleMap Scale

• The scale of a map is the relation of a feature’s size on a map and its actual size on Earth’s surface.

▫Fraction (1/24,000)

▫Ratio (1:24,000)

▫Written statement (1 inch equals 1 mile)

▫Graphic bar scale

Graphic ScaleGraphic Scale

•A graphic scale usually consists of a bar line marked to show distances on Earth’s surface.

•The bar line is used by measuring a distance on the map, then reading that distance along the bar line.

•The appropriate scale for a map depends on the information being portrayed.

Washington State Washington State (1:10 million scale)(1:10 million scale)

Western WashingtonWestern Washington(1:1 million scale)(1:1 million scale)

Seattle RegionSeattle Region(1:100,000 scale)(1:100,000 scale)

Downtown Seattle, Downtown Seattle, WashingtonWashington(1:10,000 scale)(1:10,000 scale)

Scale Differences: Scale Differences: Maps of Maps of FloridaFlorida

Fig. 1-3: The effects of scale in maps of Florida. (Scales from 1:10 million to 1:10,000)

Spatial Association at Various Spatial Association at Various ScalesScales

Fig. 1-13: Death rates from cancer in the U.S., Maryland, and Baltimore show different patterns that can identify associations with different factors.

Contemporary ToolsContemporary Tools

GIS• A geographic information system (GIS) is a high-

performance computer system that processes geographic data.

• Each type of information (topography, political boundaries, population density, manufacturing, etc.) is stored as an information layer.

• GIS is most powerful when it is used to combine several layers, to show relations.

Layers of a GISLayers of a GIS

Fig. 1-5: A geographic information system (GIS) stores information about a location in several layers. Each layer represents a different category of information.

GPSGPS

Site vs. SituationSite vs. Situation

Site: Lower Manhattan Island

Fig. 1-6: Site of lower Manhattan Island, New York City. There have been many changes to the area over the last 200 years.

SingaporeSingapore SituationSituation

Fig. 1-7: Singapore is situated at a key location for international trade.

Djibouti Djibouti PakistanPakistan

World Geographic World Geographic GridGrid

Fig. 1-8: The world geographic grid consists of meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude. The prime meridian (0º) passes through Greenwich, England.

World Time ZonesWorld Time Zones

Fig. 1-9: The world’s 24 standard time zones are often depicted using the Mercator projection.

Formal and Functional Formal and Functional RegionsRegions

Fig. 1-11: The state of Iowa is an example of a formal region; the areas of influence of various television stations are examples of functional regions.

Vernacular RegionsVernacular Regions

Fig. 1-12: A number of factors are often used to define the South as a vernacular region, each of which identifies somewhat different boundaries.

Vernacular RegionVernacular Region

Kurdistan

What is Culture? What is Culture?

• Your book defines culture as a body of customary beliefs, material trades, and social forms that together constitute the distinct tradition of a group of people.

• The Latin root of culture is cultus, which means to care for. Example Agriculture (term for growing things)

DiffusionDiffusion

• Diffusion is the process by which a characteristic spreads across space from one place to another over time. ▫ The place of origin of the characteristic is called the

hearth. For example – US, Canadian, and many Latin cultures

can be traced back to the European Hearth.

• There are two basic types of diffusion:▫ Relocation diffusion▫ Expansion diffusion

• Expansion Diffusion includes…▫ Hierarchical diffusion▫ Contagious diffusion▫ Stimulus diffusion

Space-Time Compression Space-Time Compression (1492–1962)(1492–1962)

Fig. 1-20: The times required to cross the Atlantic, or orbit the Earth, illustrate how transport improvements have shrunk the world.

Cultural EcologyCultural Ecology• Geographers also consider environmental factors as well as

cultural factors, when looking at regions.

• This is cultural ecology. ▫ Basically, this is the geographic study of human-

environmental relations.

• In the 19th Century – some geographers said that human actions were caused by environmental conditions. (environmental determinism)

• This is rejected by modern geographers that say some environmental conditions limit human actions. (possibilism)

• Of course now we are realizing that humans can actually adjust their environment. (For good or bad)

Environmental Modification in the Environmental Modification in the NetherlandsNetherlands

Fig. 1-15: Polders and dikes have been used for extensive environmental modification in the Netherlands.

Environmental Modification in Environmental Modification in FloridaFlorida

Fig. 1-16: Straightening the Kissimmee River has had many unintended side effects.

View of Miami Beach

The barrier Island - Orchid Island.