Chapter 10 – Power & Influence in the Workplace- Power & influence are never far from the actions of leaders & followers

The Meaning of Power- Power is the capacity of a person, team or organization to influence others- Features of power:o (1) Power is not the act of changing someone’s attitudes or behaviour; it’s only the potential to do so.

People often have power they don’t use – they might not even know they have powero (2) Power is based on the target’s perception that the powerholder controls (ie. possesses, has access

to, or regulates) a valuable resource that can help them achieve their goals. People might generate power by convincing others that they control something of value, whether

or not they actually control that resource. Thus, power exists when others believe the powerholder controls resources that will help them

Power isn’t a personal feeling of power – you might feel powerful or think you have power over others, but this isn’t power unless others believe you have that capacity

o (3) Power involves asymmetric (unequal) dependence of one party on another party. This dependent relationship is shown in figure 10.1 (pg. 273). The line from Person B to goal shows that s/he believes A controls a source that can help or hinder B in achieving that goal. Person A – the power holder, might have power over B by controlling a desired job assignment, useful info, rewards or even the privilege of being associated with him/her.

• Ex. if you believe a co-worker has expertise (the resource) that would help you to write a better report (your goal), then that co-worker has some power over you b/c you value that expertise to achieve your goal. Whatever the resource is, B is dependent on A (the powerholder) to provide the resource so B can reach his/her goal

• Although dependence is a key element of power relationships, we use the phrase “asymmetric dependence” b/c the less powerful party still has some degree of power – called countervailing power – over the powerholder. Person A dominates power relationship, but B has enough countervailing power to dominant power judiciously. Ex. although mgrs. have power over e/ees in many ways (ie. controlling job security, preferred work assignments), e/ees have countervailing power by possessing skills & knowledge to keep prod’n humming & customers happy, something that mngmt can’t accomplish alone

o (4) Power relationship depends on some minimum level of trust. Trust indicates a level of expectation that the more powerful party will deliver the resource

o Ex. you trust your e/er to give you a paycheque at the end of each pay period. Even those in extremely dependent situations will usually walk away form the relationship if they lack a minimum level of trust in the more powerful party.

- The dependence model reveals only the core features of power dynamics in orgs. we also need to learn the specific sources of power & contingencies that allow that power to be effectively applied as influence

- Power is derived from 5 sources: legitimate, reward, coercive, expert & referent- There are also 5 contingencies of power: the employee’s or department’s substitutability,

centrality, discretion & visibility.

- Can someone use all 5 sources of power at the same time? No. Can use a combo pack together (final exam **) identify the sources of power and influencing power, show info from the case that supports why the combo pack is in effect? What examples from the case show that Ex. reward power and coercive power are being used.

Sources of Power in Organizations (** final exam – identify sources of power & influencing tactics)- Why do some people have more power than others in the workplace?- Half a century ago, social scientists John French & Bertrand Raven identified 5 sources of power

found in orgs. although variations of this list have been proposed over the years, the original list remains intact

- 3 sources of power: legitimate, reward & coercive – originate mostly (not completely) from the powerholder’s formal position or informal role the person is granted these sources of power formally by the org. or informally by co-workers

- 2 other sources of power: expert & referent – originate mainly from powerholder’s own characteristics people carry these power bases around them. However, even personal sources of power are situational to some extent b/c they depend on how others perceive the individual

1. Legitimate Power - Legitimate Power – an agreement among org. members that people in certain roles can request

certain behaviours of others o Based on a person holding a formal position. Others comply b/c they accept the legitimacy of

the position of the power holder “Do it because I’m the boss” - this perceived right or obligation originates from formal job descprtions as well as informal rules of

conduct. - Most obvious ex. of legitimate power is a mgr’s right to tell e/ees what tasks to perform, who to

work with, what office resources they can use, etc. - E/ees agree to use the boss’s requests b/c there’s a mutual agreement that e/ees will follow a range of

directives from people in these positions of authority. - E/es defer to this authority whether or not they will be rewarded or punished for complying with

those requests - Legitimate power has restrictions: it only gives the powerholder the right to ask for a range of

behaviours from others. The range – known as the “zone of indifference” is the set of behaviours that individuals are willing to engage in at the other person’s request. Although, most e/ees accept the boss’s right to deny them access to FB during co. time, some might draw the line when boss asks them to work several hours beyond the regular workday

o Also occasions where e/ees actively oppose the boss’s actions. Ex. RCMP execs publicly complained that the Commissioner’s reassignment of 2 senior mngmt staff went beyond his legitimate power. His position allows him to reassign people, and the 2 execs involved didn’t refuse their new reassignment. However, other execs claim Commissioner stepped beyond the “zone of indifference” b/c they believe his actions were political rather than in the best interests of the org. & society

- The size of the “zone of indifference” (& consequently, the magnetite of legitimate power) increases with the level of trust in the powerholder.

- Some people are also more obedient to authority, particularly those who value conformity & tradition. People in high power distance cultures (ie. they accept an unequal distribution of power) also tend to have higher deference to authority compared with people in low power distance cultures.

- The org.’s culture represents another influence on the willingness of e/ees to follow orders. Ex. a scientist might continue to work on a project after being told by superiors to stop working on it b/c culture supports an entrepre. spirit, which includes ignoring your boss’s authority from time to time

- Mgr’s aren’t the only people with legitimate power in orgs. E/ees also have legitimate power over their bosses & co-workers through legal & admin rights as well as informal norms. Ex. an org. might give e/ees the right to request info that is required for their job. Laws give e/ees the right to refuse work in unsafe conditions.

- More subtle forms of legitimate power also exist. Human beings have a norm of reciprocity – a feeling of obligation to help someone who has helped you. Ex. if a co-worker previously helped you

handle a difficult client, that co-worker has power b/c you feel an obligation to help the co-worker on something of similar value in the future. The norm of reciprocity is a form of legitimate power b/c it’s an informal rule of conduct that we are expected to follow

- A particularly potent form of legitimate power occurs where people have the right to control the info that others receive. These info gatekeepers gain power in 2 ways:

o (1) Info is a resource, so those who need that info are dependent on the gatekeeper to provide that resource. Ex. the maps department of a mining co. has incredible power when other departments are dependent on the map department to deliver maps for exploration projects.

o (2) They also gain power by selectively distributing info so those receiving the info perceive the situation differently. Ex. execs depend on middle mgrs. & e/ees to provide an accurate picture of the co.’s operations, yet info is often filtered as it flows up the hierarchy. Middle mgrs. & e/ees filter info so it puts them in a more positive light & allows them to steer the exec team toward one decision rather than another. These info gatekeepers can potentially influence exec decisions by framing their reality through selective distribution of info

2. Reward Power- Reward power – derived from the person’s ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by

others & to remove negative sanctions (ie. negative reinforcement)o Based on a person’s access to rewards. Others comply b/c they want the rewards the power

holder can offer – “Do it b/c there is something in it for you”- Mgrs. have formal authority that gives them power over the distribution of org. rewards such as gay,

promotions, time off, vacation schedules & work assignments- E/ees also have reward power over their bosses through their feedback & ratings in 360-degree

feedback systems. These ratings affect supervisors’ promotions & other rewards, so supervisors pay more attention to e/ee requests after 360-degree feedback is introduced

3. Coercive Power- Coercive power – the ability to apply punishment. For many of us, the 1st through is mgrs.

threatening e/ees with dismissal. Yet, e/ees also have coercive power, such as being sarcastic toward co-workers or threatening to ostracize them if they fail to conform to team norms

o Based on a person’s ability to punish. Others comply b/c they fear punishment or some negative consequence – “Do it or else”

- Many firms rely on coercive power to control co-worker behaviour in team settings - “If you’re not contributing with the team, they certainly will let you know about it”- “The few poor players get weeded out by their peers.” Similarly, when asked how AirAsia

maintained attendance & productivity after the Malaysian discount airline removed time clocks, chief exec said “Simple. Peer pressure sees to that. The fellow e/ees, who are putting their shoulders to the wheel, will see to that”

4. Expert Power- For the most part, legitimate, reward & coercive power originate from the position- Expert power originates from within the powerholder. It’s an individual’s or work unit’s capacity to

influence others by possessing knowledge or skills valued by others o Based on a person’s expertise, competence, and information in a certain area. Others comply

b/c they believe in the power holder’s knowledge and competence – “Do it b/c you value my expertise on the matter.”

- One impt. form of expert power is the (perceived) ability to manage uncertainties in the business environment

- Orgs. are more effective when they operate in predicable environments, so they value people who can cope with turbulence in the consumer trends, societal changes, unstable supply lines, etc.

- A study of Canadian breweries & container co’s identified 3 types of expertise that cope with uncertainty. These coping strategies are arranged in a hierarchy of importance, with prevention

being the most powerful:o Prevention – most effective strategy is to prevent environmental changes from occurring.

Ex. financial experts acquire power by preventing the org. from experiencing a cash shortage or defaulting on loans

o Forecasting - next best strategy is to predict environmental changes or variations. In this respect, trendspotters & other marketing specialists gain power by predicting changes in consumer preferences

o Absorption – people & work units also gain power by absorbing or neutralizing the impact of environmental shifts as they occur. Ex. the ability of maintenance crews to come to the rescue when machines break down

- The power of expertise is similar to the power of authority (legitimate power) b/c many people tend to follow the guidance of these experts w/o careful thought

- Ex. a researcher posing as a hospital physician telephoned on-duty nurses to prescribe a specific dosage of medicine to a hospitalized patient. None of the nurses knew the person calling, and hospital policy forbade them from accepting treatment by telephone. The medication was unauthorized & the prescription was twice the max daily dose. Yet, almost all 22 nurses who received the call followed the “doctor’s” orders until stopped by researchers. This doctor-nurse study is old, but the power of expertise remains strong today, sometimes with tragic consequences.

5. Referent Power - People have referent power when others identify with them, like them, or otherwise respect them

o Based on a person’s attractiveness to and friendship with others. Others comply b/c they respect and like the power holder – “Do it b/c you respect, like or identify with me”

- As with expert power, referent power originates within the powerholder. It’s largely a function of the person’s interpersonal skills and tends to develop slowly

- Referent power is also associated with charisma – a form of interpersonal attraction where followers ascribe almost magical powers to the charismatic individual.o A personal characteristic or special “gift” within a charismatic person, that serves as a form of

interpersonal attraction and referent power over otherso Some say it’s mainly in the eyes of the beholdero Charisma produces a high degree of trust, respect, and devotion towards the charismatic

individual

Contingencies of Power- Ex. you have expert power b/c of your ability to forecast and possibly even prevent dramatic changes in

the org.’s environment. Does the expertise mean that you are influential? Not necessarily- Sources of power generate power only under certain conditions- 4 contingencies of power: substitutability, centrality, discretion & visibility

1. Substitutability - Substitutability – the availability of alternatives. - Power is strongest when someone has a monopoly over a valued resource. Conversely, power

decreases as the # of alternative sources of the critical resource increases - If you, and no one else has expertise across the org. on an impt. issue, you would be more powerful

than if several people in your co. possess this valued knowledge. - Substitutability is not only to other resources that offer the resource, but also to substitutions of the

resource itself o Ex. labour unions are weakened when co.’s introduce technologies that replace the need for their

union members. Technology is a substitute for e/ees, and consequently, reduces union power - Non-substitutability is strengthened by controlling access to the resource- Professions & labour unions gain power by controlling knowledge, tasks or labour to perform impt.

activities. Ex. medical profession is powerful b/c it controls who can perform specific medical procedures. Labour unions that dominate an industry effectively control access to labour needed to perform key jobs

- E/ees become non-substitutable when they possess knowledge (ie. operating equipment or serving clients) that’s not documented or readily available to others.

- Non-substitutability also occurs when people differentiate their resource from the alternatives. o Some people claim that consultants use this tactic – take skills & knowledge that many other

consulting firms can provide & wrap them into a package so that it looks like a service that no one else can offer.

2. Centrality - Centrality – the powerholder’s importance based on the degree & nature of interdependence

between the powerholder & others - Centrality increases with the # of people dependent on you as well as how quickly & severely they

are affected by that dependence - Think about your own centrality for a moment: if you decided not to show up for work or school

tomorrow, how many people would have difficult performing their jobs b/c of your absence? How soon after they arrive at work would co-workers notice that you are missing and would have to adjust their tasks & work schedule as a result?

- If you have high centrality, most people in the org. would be adversely affected by your absence, and they would be affected quickly

- The extent to which centrality leverages power is apparent in well-timed labour union strikes, such as NYC transit strike during the busy Christmas shopping seasons a few years ago. The illegal 3-day work stoppage clogged roads and caused half the city workers to miss or arrive very late for work. Metropolitan authority said we got no power, but we got power. “We got the power to stop the city”

3. Discretion- Discretion - the freedom to exercise judgement – to make decisions w/o referring to a specific rule

or receiving permission from someone else - Ex. 1st-line supervisors – it may seem that they have legitimate, reward & coercive power over e/ees,

but this power is often curtailed by specific rules – the lack of discretion makes supervisors less powerful than their positions would indicate. “Middle mgrs. are very much ‘piggy-in-the-middle”. “They have little power, only what senior mgrs. are allowed to give them”

- More generally, research indicates that managerial discretion varies across industries, and that mgrs. with an internal locus of control are viewed as more powerful b/c they act as though they have considerable discretion in their job

4. Visibility- Power doesn’t flow to unknown people in the org. Those who control valued resources or

knowledge will yield power only when others are aware of these sources of power - they are visible- Increase visibility by taking people-oriented jobs and work on projects that require frequent

interaction with senior execs. “You can take visibility in steps,” advises an exec. “You can start by making yourself visible in a small group, such as a staff meeting. Then when you’re comfortable with that, seek our larger arenas”

- E/ees also gain visibility by being, quite literally, visible. o Ex. Some people strategically locate themselves in more visible offices like those closest to

the elevator or staff coffee room- People often use public symbols as subtle (and not-so-subtle) cues to make their power sources

known to others o Ex. Many professionals display their educational diplomas & awards on office walls to

remind visitors of their expertise. Medical professionals wear white coats with a stethoscope around their neck to symbolize their legitimate & expert power in hospital settings. Other people play the game of “face time” – spending more time at work & showing that they’re

working productively

The Power of Social Networks- “It’s not what you know, but who you know that counts” – this statement reflects the idea that e/ees get

ahead not just be developing their competencies, but by locating themselves within social networks – social structures of individuals or social units (ie. departments, organizations) that are connected to each other through one or more forms of interdependence

- Some networks are held together due to common interests, such as when e/ees who love fancy cars spend more time together

- Other networks form around common status, expertise, kinship, or physical proximity. Ex. e/ees are more likely to form networks with co-workers located near them as well as with co-workers who are relatives or close neighbours

- Social networks exist everywhere b/c people have a drive to bond. However, they are cultural differences in the norms of active network involvement

- Several writers suggest that social networking is more of a central life activity in Asian cultures that emphasize guanxi - a Chinese term referring to an individual’s network of social connectionso Guanxi – is an expressive activity b/c being part of a close-knit network of family & friends

reinforces one’s self-concept.o Guanxi is also an instrumental activity b/c it’s a strategy for receiving favours & opportunities

from otherso People across all cultures rely on social networks for both expressive & instrumental purposes,

but these activities seem to be somewhat more explicit in Confucian cultures

Social Capital & Sources of Capital - Social networks generate power through social capital – the goodwill & resulting resources shared

among members in a social network - Social networks produce trust, support, sympathy, forgiveness, and similar forms of goodwill among

network members, and this goodwill motivates & enables network members to share resources with each other

- Social networks offer a variety of resources, each of which potentially enhances the power of its members. Probably the best-known resource is info from other network members, which improves the individual’s expert power

- The goodwill of social capital opens communication pipelines among those within the network. Network members receive valuable knowledge more easily & more quickly from fellow network members than do people outside that network. With better info access & timeliness, members have more power b/c their expertise is a scarce resource; it’s not widely available to ppl outside the network

- (2) Increased visibility is a 2nd way that social networks increase one’s power. When asked to recommend someone for valued positions, other network members more readily think of oyu than people outside of the network. Similarly, they are more likely to mention your name when asked to identify people with expertise in your areas of knowledge.

- (3) A 3rd source of power from networks is reference power. People tend to gain reference power b/c network members identify more with or at least have greater trust in network members, thereby gaining access to more resources controlled by those members. o Referent power is also apparent by the fact that reciprocity increases among network members as

they become more embedded in the network - A common misperception is that social networks are free spirits that can’t be orchestrated by corporate

leaders. In reality, co. structures & practices can shape these networks to some extent. But even if org. leaders don’t try to manage social networks, they need to be aware of them.

- People gain power in orgs. through accurate perception of social networks. Some leaders are discovering the hidden dynamics of these networks and are tapping into their potential

Gaining Power From Social Networks - how do individuals (and teams & orgs) gain the most social capital from social networks? To answer

this, we consider the #, depth, variety & centrality of connections that people have in their networks - Strong Ties, Weak Ties, Many Ties

o Social capital tends to increase with the # of network ties. The more people connected to you, the more resources (info, favours, etc.) will be available.

o Some people have an amazing capacity to maintain their connectivity with many people, and emerging communication technologies (Facebook, LinkedIn, etc.) have increased this capacity to gain social capital

o The more people you know, the less time & energy you have to form “strong ties” o These are close-knit relationships evident from how often we interact with people, how much we

share resources with them, and whether we have multiple or singular relationships with them (ie. friend, co-worker, sports partner)

o The main advantages of having strong ties are that they offer resources more quickly & sometimes more plentifully than are available in weak ties (ie. acquaintances)

o Some minimal connection strength is necessary to remain in any social network, but strong connections aren’t necessarily the most valuable ties Having weak ties (ie. being merely acquaintances) with people from diverse networks can be

more valuable than having strong ties (ie. having close friendships) with people in similar networks

Close ties – our close-knit circle of friends – tend to be similar to us, and similar people tend to have the same info & connections that we already have

Weak ties – are acquaintances who are usually different from us & therefore offer resources we don’t possess strength of weak ties is apparent in job hunting & career development

By serving as a “bridge” across several unrelated networks, we receive unique resources from each network rather than more of the same resources

- People with diverse networks tend to be more successful job seekers b/c they have a wider net to catch new job opportunities

- In contrast, people who belong to similar overlapping networks tend to receive the fewer leads- As careers require more movement across many orgs & industries, you need to establish connections

with people across a diverse range of industries, professions & other spheres of life

- Social Network Centrality o The centrality contingency also applies to social networks. The more central a person (or team or

org.) is located in the network, the more social capital & more power s/he acquires o Centrality is your importance in the network o What conditions give you more centrality than others in social networks? One key factor is your

“betweenness,” - the extent which you are located between others in the network The more betweenness you have, the more you control the distribution of info & other

resources to people on either side of you In figure 10.3 (pg. 281) – Person A has high betweenness centrality b/c s/he is a gatekeeper

who controls the flow of info to and form many other people in the network. H has less betweeness, and most other network members have no betweenness.

o Another factor in centrality is the # or % of connections you have to others in your network – “Degree centrality”. The more people connected to you, the more resources (info, favours, etc.) will be available

• The # off connections also increases centrality b/c you are more visible to other members of the network. Although being a member of a network gives you access to resources in that

network, having direct connections to people make that resource sharing more fluid. o Centrality is a function of the “closeness” of the relationship.

• High closeness occurs when a member has shorter, more direct & efficient paths or connections with others in the network. Ex. A has fairly high closeness centrality b/c s/he hs direct paths to most of the network, and many of these paths are short (implying efficient & high quality communication links)

o Also in 10.3 – 2 clusters of people in the network. The gap between these 2 clusters is the structural hole – an area between 2 or more dense social network areas that lacks network ties Ex. A provides the main bridge across this structural hole (connecting to H & K in the other

cluster). This bridging role gives A additional power in the network. By bridging this gap, A becomes a broker – someone who connects 2 independent networks & controls info flow between them

o Research shows that the more brokering relationships you have, the more likely you are to get early promotions, higher pay & bonuses

- The Dark Side of Social Networkso Social networks are natural elements of all orgs, yet they can create a formidable barrier to those

who aren’t actively connected to it o Women are often excluded from informal mngmt networks if they don’t participate in goal games &

other male-dominated social events o Inaccessibility to powerful social networks partly explained why many junior female e/ees left the

accounting & consulting firm before reaching partnership level. Swiss-based accounting firm now relies on mentoring, formal women’s network groups, and measurement of career progress to ensure that female staff members have the same career development opportunities as their male colleagues

Consequences of Power- How does power affect the powerholder? The answer depends to some extent on the type of power- When people feel empowered (high self-determination, meaning, competence & impact), they believe

they have power over themselves & freedom from being influenced by others. - Empowerment tends to increase motivation, job satisfaction, org. commitment & job performance. - However, this feeling of personal power also increases automatic rather than mindful thinking. People

who feel powerful usually are more likely to rely on stereotypes, have difficulty empathizing, and generally have less accurate perceptions compared with people who have less power

- The other type of power is one in which an individual has power over others, such as legitimate, reward, and coercive power that mgrs. have over e/ees in the workplace

- This type of power is accompanied by a sense of responsibility for the people over whom they have power. Consequently, people who have power over others tend to be more mindful of their actions & engage in less stereotyping

Influencing Others- Power is only the capacity to influence others. It represents the potential to change someone’s attitude &

behaviour - Influence – any behaviour that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behaviour. Influence is power in

motion. It applies one or more sources of power to get people to alter their beliefs, feelings, and activities - Consequently, we focus on how people use power to influence others - Influence tactics are woven throughout the social fabric of all orgs. This is b/c influence is an essential

process though which people coordinate their effort and act in concert to achieve org. objectives- Influence is central to the definition of leadership. Influence operates down, across and up the corporate

hierarchy – supervisors ensure that e/ees complete required tasks. E/ees influence co-workers to help them with their job assignments. E/ees engage in upward influence tactics so corporate leaders make

decisions compatible with e/ee’s needs & expectations

Types of Influence Tactics- Org. behaviour researchers have devoted considerable attention to the various types of influence tactics

found in org. settings- Most commonly identified influence tactics are:- Hard: silent authority, assertiveness, information control, coalition formation, upward appeal

• Hard b/c they force behaviour change through position power (legitimate, reward & coercion) - Soft: persuasion, ingratiation/impression management, exchange

• Soft b/c they rely more on personal sources of power (referent, expert) and appeal to the target person’s attitudes and needs

- Resistance compliance commitment

Hard (forceful) Influence Tactics

1. Silent Authority- Silent authority – silent application of authority occurs where someone complies with a request b/c

of the requester’s legitimate power as well as the target person’s role expectations Influencing behaviour through legitimate power w/o explicitly referring to that power base

- This difference occurs when you comply with your boss’s request to complete a particular task. If the task is within your job scope and your boss has the right to make this request, then this influence strategy operates w/o negotiation, threats, persuasion, or other tactics

- Silent authority is the most common form of influence in higher power distance cultures 2. Assertiveness

- Assertiveness – might be called “vocal authority” b/c it involves actively applying legitimate & coercive power to influence others

- Includes persistently reminding the target of his/her obligations, frequently checking the target’s work, confronting the target, and using threats of sanctions to force compliance

Actively applying legitimate power by applying pressure or threats- Assertiveness typically applies or threatens to apply punishment if the target doesn’t comply- Explicitly or implicit threats range from job loss to losing face by letting down the team - Extreme forms of assertiveness include blackmailing colleagues, such as by threatening to reveal

other person’s previously unknown failures unless s/he complies with your request 3. Information control

- People with centrality in social networks have the power to control info – this power translates into influence when powerholder selectively distributes info such that it reframes the situation & causes others to change their attitudes and/or behaviour

Explicitly manipulating someone else’s access to info for the purpose of changing their attitudes and/or behaviour

- Controlling info might include withholding info that is more critical or favourable, or by distributing info to some people but not to others

- Co-workers keep others in the dark about work issues if it helps their own cause. CEO’s influence their board of directors by selectively feeding and withholding info

4. Coalition formation - When people lack sufficient power alone to influence others in the org, they might form a coalition

of people who support the proposed change

Forming a group that attempts to influence others by pooling the resources & power of its members

- A coalition is influential in 3 ways: a) It pools the power & resources of many people, so the coalition potentially has more influence

than any # of people operating alone b) The coalition’s mere existence can be a source of power by symbolizing the legitimacy of the

issue. A coalition creates a sense that the issue deserves attention b/c it has broad supportc) Coalitions tap into the power of the social identity process (ch.3)

- A coalition is an informal group that advocates a new set of norms & behaviours- If the coalition has a broad-based membership (ie. its members come from various parts of the org),

then other e/ees are more likely to identify with that group, and, consequently, accept the ideas the coalition is proposing

5. Upward appeal - Upward appeal – a type of influence in which someone with higher authority or expertise is called

on (in reality or symbolically) to support the influencer’s position Gaining support from one or more people with higher authority or expertise

- It occurs when someone says: “the boss likely agrees with me on this matter; let’s proceed!”- Upward appeal also occurs when relying on the authority of the firm’s policies or values - By reminding others that your request is consistent with the org’s overarching goals, you are

implying support from senior execs w/o formally involving them

Soft Influence Tactics

6. Persuasion - Persuasion – is one of the most effective influence strategies for career success. - The ability to use facts, logical arguments & emotional appeals to change another person’s beliefs &

attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing the person’s behaviour, is not just an acceptable way to influence others; in many societies, it’s a noble art & a quality of effective leaders

Using logical arguments, factual evidence, and emotional appeals to convince people of the value of a request

- The effectiveness of persuasion as an influence tactic depends on: characteristics of the persuader, message content, communication medium, and the audience being persuaded

- People are more persuasive when listeners believe they have expertise & credibility, such as when the persuader doesn’t seem to profit them the persuasion attempt & states a few points against the position

- The msg is more impt. than the messenger when the issue is impt. to the audience - Persuasive message content acknowledges several points of view so the audience doesn’t feel

cornered by the speaker The msg should also be limited to a few strong arguments, which are repeated a few times, but

not too frequently The msg should use emotional appeals (such as graphically showing the unfortunate

consequences of a bad decision), but only in combination with logical arguments and specific recommendations to overcome the threat

Msg content is more persuasive when the audience is warned about opposing arguments. This inoculation effect causes listeners to generate counter-arguments to the anticipated persuasion attempts, which makes the opponent’s subsequent persuasion attempts less effective

- 2 other considerations when persuading people are the medium of communication and characteristics of the audience

Generally, persuasion works best in face-to-face convos and through other media-rich communication channels

The personal nature of face-to-face communication increases persuader’s credibility, and the richness of this channel provides faster feedback that the influence strategy is working

With respect to audience characteristics, it’s more difficult to persuade people who have high self-esteem & intelligence, as well as a self-concept that’s strongly tried to the opposing viewpoint

7. Ingratiation/impression management - Ingratiation – any attempt to increase liking by, or perceived similarity to, some targeted person - Ingratiation comes in several flavours. E/ees might flatter their boss in front of others, demonstrate

that they have similar attitudes as their boss (ie. agreeing with the boss’s proposal) and ask their boss for advice

- Ingratiation is one of the more effective influence tactics at boosting a person’s career success (ie. performance appraisal feedback, salaries & promotions).

- However, people who engage in high levels of ingratiation are less (not more) influential and less likely to get promoted. This is b/c the those who engage in too much ingratiation are viewed as insincere & self-serving

- The terms “apple polishing” and “brown-nosing” are applied to those who ingratiate to excess or in ways that suggest selfish motives for the ingratiation

- Ingratiation is part of a larger influence tactic known as impression management – the practice of actively shaping our public images. These public images might be crafted as being impt, vulnerable, threatening, or pleasant

- For the most part, e/ees routinely engage in pleasant impression mngmt behaviours to satisfy the basic norms of social behaviour, such as the way they dress & how they behave toward colleagues & customers

- Impression mngmt is a common strategy for people trying to get ahead in the workplace- Career professionals encourage people to develop a personal “brand;” that’s to demonstrate &

symbolize a distinctive competitive advantage- People who master the art of personal branding rely impression management through distinctive

personal characteristics such as black shirts, tinted hair or unique signatures. “Every piece of career advice I ever heard was that you are your own brand.” “You have to be constantly selling yourself & looking for that next job, even as you start a new job”

- A few individuals carry impression mngmt beyond ethical boundaries by exaggerating their credentials & accomplishments (ie. lying about having a PhD, hiding criminal past involving forgery & embezzlement, being a researcher, author of books and recipient of a number of awards, almost receiving a real award.

8. Exchange - Exchange activities involve the promise of benefits or resources in exchange for the target person’s

compliance with your request - Negotiation is an integral part of exchange influence activities. Ex. you might negotiate with your

boss for a day off in return for working a less desirable shift at a future date. - Exchange also includes applying the norm of reciprocity – such as reminding the target of past

benefits or favours with the expectation that the target will now make up for that debt - They also use norms of reciprocity to influence others in the network. Active networks build up

“exchange credits” by helping colleagues in the short-term for reciprocal benefits in the long-term

Consequences & Contingencies of Influence Tactics - Faced with a variety of influence strategies, which ones are the best?- The best way to answer this is to describe how people react when others try to influence them:

resistance, compliance or commitment

1. Resistance – occurs when people or work units oppose the behaviour desired by the influencer by refusing, arguing or delaying engagement in the behaviour

2. Compliance – occurs when people are motivated to implement the influencer’s request at a minimal level of effort and for purely instrumental reasons. W/o external sources to prompt the desire behaviour, compliance wouldn’t occur

3. Commitment – the strongest outcome of influence – people identify with the influencer’s request and are highly motivated to implement it even when extrinsic sources of motivation are no longer present

- Generally, people react more favourably to “soft” tactics than to “hard” tactics - Soft tactics rely on personal sources of power (expert & referent power), which tend to build

commitment to the influencer’s request - Hard tactics rely on position power (legitimate, reward & coercion), so they tend to produce

compliance, or, worse, resistance. Hard tactics also tend to undermine trust, which can hurt future relationships

- The most appropriate influence strategy depends on a few contingencies:1. Which sources of power are strongest – those with expertise tend to have more influence using

persuasion, whereas those with a strong legitimate power base are usually more successful applying silent authority

2. Whether the person being influenced is higher, lower or at same level in the org. – Ex. e/ees may face adverse career consequences by being too assertive with their boss. Meanwhile, supervisors who engage in ingratiation & impression management tend to lose the respect of their staff

3. The most appropriate influence tactic depends on personal, organizational, and cultural values. People with strong power orientation might feel more comfortable using assertiveness, whereas those who value conformity might feel more comfortable with upward appeal

- At an org. level, firms with a competitive culture might foster more use of info control & coalition formation, whereas co’s with a learning orientation would likely encourage more influence through persuasion

- The preferred influence tactics also vary across societal cultures- Research indicates that ingratiation is much more common among mgrs. in Canada than in Hong

Kong, possibly b/c this tactic disrupts the more distant roles that mgrs. and e/ees expect in high power distance cultures

Influence and Organizational Politics - For the most part, org. politics is in the eye of the beholder. You might perceive a co-worker’s attempt to

influence the boss as acceptable behaviour for the good of the org., whereas someone else might perceive the co-worker’s tactic as brazen org. politics

- This perceptual issue explains why OB experts increasingly discuss influence tactics as behaviours & organizational politics as perceptions

- The influence tactic described earlier are perceived as organizational politics when they seem to be self-serving behaviours at the expense of others & possibly contrary to the interests of the entire organization

- Some tactics are so blatantly selfish & counterproductive that almost everyone correctly sees them as organizational politics

- In some other situations, however, a person’s behaviour might be viewed as political or in the org’s best interest, depending on your point of view

- E/ees who experience org. politics have: lower job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship & task performance, as well as higher levels of work-related stress & motivation to leave the org. And b/c political tactics serve individuals rather than orgs., they potentially divert resources away from the org.’s effective functioning & potentially threaten its survival

Conditions Supporting Organizational Politics - E/ees are more likely to engage in org. politics (that is, use influence tactics for personal gains) under

certain conditions- One of those conditions is scarce resources – when budgets are slashed, people rely on political tactics

to safeguard their resources & maintain the status quo. - Office politics also flourishes when resource allocation decisions are ambiguous, complex, or lack formal

rules. This occurs b/c decision makers are given more discretion over resource allocation, so potential recipients of those resources use political tactics to influence the factors that should be considered int the decision

- Organizational change encourages political behaviours for this reason. Change creates uncertainty & ambiguity as the co. moves from an old set of rules & practices to a new set. During these times, e/ees apply political strategies to protect their valued resources, position and self-concept

Personal Characteristics - Several personal characteristics affect an individual’s motivation to engage in self-serving behaviour - This includes a strong need for personal power as opposed to socialized power. Those with a need for

personal power seek power for its own sake & try to acquire more power- Some individuals have strong Machiavellian values – named after Niccolo Machiavelli – the 16th

century Italian philosopher who wrote The Prince, a famous treatise about political behaviour- People with high Machiavellian values are comfortable with getting more than they deserve, and they

believe that deceit is a natural & acceptable way to achieve this goal. They seldom trust co-workers and tend to use cruder influence tactics, such as bypassing one’s boss or being assertive, to get their own way

Minimizing Organizational Politics & its Consequences - The conditions that fuel org. politics also give us some clues about how to control dysfunctional political

activities- 1) One strategy to keep org. politics in check is to: introduce clear rules & regulations that specify

the use of scarce resources. - Org. politics can become a problem during times of org. change, so politics can be minimized through

effective org. change practices. - Leaders also need to actively manage group norms to curtail self-serving influence activities. In

particular, the can support org. values that oppose political tactics, such as altruism & customer-focus - One of the most impt. strategies is for leaders to become role models of org. citizenship rather than

symbols of successful org. politicians - Along with minimizing org. politics, co’s can limit the adverse effects of political perceptions by giving

e/ees more control over their work & keeping them informed of org. events - Research has found that e/ees who are kept informed of what’s going on in the org. and who are involved

in org. decisions are less likely to experience org. politics, which results in less stress, job dissatisfaction, and absenteeism