Chapter 10

Sex and Gender

Chapter Outline

Sex: The Biological Dimension Gender: The Cultural Dimension Gender Stratification in Historical and

Contemporary Perspective Gender and Socialization Contemporary Gender Inequality Perspectives on Gender Stratification Gender Issues in the Future

 Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males.

Gender refers to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males.

Sex: The Biological Dimension

At birth, males and females are distinguished by primary sex characteristics.

Occasionally, a hormone imbalance produces a hermaphrodite - a person with a combination of male and female genitalia.

Western societies acknowledge two sexes; other societies recognize three - men, women, and berdaches, males who behave, dress, work,and are treated as women.

Gender: The Cultural Dimension

Most “sex differences” are socially constructed “gender differences”.

Gender is embedded in the images, ideas, and language of a society.

Gender is used as a means to divide up work, allocate resources, and distribute power.

Sexism

Subordination of one sex based on the assumed superiority of the other sex.

Sexism directed at women has three components:– Negative attitudes toward women.– Stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement, or

justify the prejudice.– Discrimination - acts that exclude, distance, or keep

women separate.

Gender Stereotypes

Hold that men and women are different in attributes, behavior and aspirations.

Men: strong, rational, dominant, independent, less concerned with appearance.

Women: weak, emotional, nurturing, dependent, anxious about appearance.

Technoeconomic Bases of Society

Hunting and Gathering

Horticultural and Pastoral Agrarian

Change from Prior

Society

— Use of hand tools.

Use of animal-drawn plows and

equipment

Economics Hunting game, gathering roots

and berries.

Planting crops, domestication of animals.

Labor-intensive farming

Control of Surplus

None Men who begin to control societies

Men who own land or herds

Technoeconomic Bases of Society

Hunting and Gathering

Horticultural and Pastoral

Agrarian

Inheritance None Shared—patrilineal and matrilineal

Patrilineal

Control Over Procreation

None Increasingly by men

Men -to ensure

Legitimacy.

Women’s Status

Relative equality Decreasing in move to

pastoralism

Low

Technoeconomic Bases of Society

Industrial Postindustrial

Change from Prior Society

Invention of steam engine

Invention of computer and development of“high-tech”

society.

Economics Mechanized production of goods

Information and service economy

Control of Surplus

Men who own means of

production

Corporate shareholders and high-tech entrepreneurs.

Technoeconomic Bases of Society

Industrial Postindustrial

Inheritance Bilateral Bilateral

Control Over Procreation

Men—but less so in later stages

Mixed

Women’s Status Low Low Varies by class, race, and age.

Gendered Division of Labor

Three factors: Type of subsistence base. Supply of and demand for labor. The extent to which women's child-rearing

activities are compatible with certain types of work.

Increase in Single Mothers

Between 1990 and 2000, the number of U.S. families headed by single mothers increased by 25%.

A single mother is defined as a widowed, divorced, separated, or never married woman who has children under 18 living at home.

This increase may indicate that “traditional” households are in decline.

 Parents and Gender Socialization

Children's clothing and toys reflect their parents' gender expectations.

Children are often assigned household tasks according to gender.

Peers and Gender Socialization

Peers help children learn gender‑appropriate and inappropriate behavior.

During adolescence, peers often are more effective at gender socialization than adults.

College student peers play an important role in career choices and the establishment of long term, intimate relationships.

Schools and Gender Socialization

Teachers provide messages about gender through classroom assignments and informal interactions with students.

Teachers may unintentionally show favoritism toward one gender over the other.

Sports and Gender Socialization

From elementary school through high school: – Boys play football.– Girls are cheerleaders, members of the drill

team, and homecoming queens. For many males, sports is a training ground for

masculinity.

Mass Media and Gender Socialization

On television: Male characters typically are more aggressive,

constructive, and direct. Females are deferential toward others or use

manipulation to get their way.

Percent of Women, African Americans, and Hispanics in Selected Occupations

WomenAfrican

Americans Hispanics

All occupations 46.2 11.1 10.1

Managerial, professional specialty (all)

49.0 7.6 5.0

Technical, sales, and administrative support (all)

64.2 11.1 8.3

Service occupations (all) 59.5 17.6 15.0

Operators, fabricators, and laborers

24.6 15.7 16.0

The Wage Gap

Women’s wages are always lower than those of men in the same age group.

The older women get, the greater the gap. – Women ages 15–24 earn 80 cents for every dollar

earned by men the same age.– Women ages 55–64 earn only 45 cents for every

dollar earned by men ages 55–64.

The Wage Gap

White men earn more than African American and Hispanic men.

Across racial–ethnic groupings, men’s earnings remain higher than the earnings of women in the ethnic grouping.

Regardless of occupation, women on average receive lower wages.