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Chapter 11 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To understand … 1. Why a renewed interest in credit risk exists 2. The importance of securitization and the
reorganization of the bank lending function 3. Modern portfolio theory applied to bank loan
portfolios 4. The more quantitative and technical approaches
to management of loan portfolios and credit risk (e.g., VAR)
5. Credit derivatives
Chapter 11 3
CHAPTER THEME This chapter focuses on modern
methods for analyzing credit risk Portfolio theory and other
sophisticated quantitative techniques provide the foundation for this approach
Securitization and credit derivatives represent examples of such techniques
Chapter 11 4
A RENEWED INTEREST IN CREDIT RISK Saunders [1999] captures the thrust of
this new movement: “In recent years, a revolution has been
brewing in the way credit risk is both measured and managed. Contradicting the relatively dull and routine history of credit risk, new technologies and ideas have emerged among a new generation of financial-engineering specialists, who are applying their model-building skills and analysis to this area” (p. 1).
Chapter 11 6
Components of TRICK
Recall: Transparency Risk Exposure Information Technology Customers Kapital Adequacy
Chapter 11 7
Transparency
Traditionally, bank business loans have been opaque.
The process of securitization has contributed to the renewed interest in credit.
Innovative developments of value at risk (VAR) and credit derivatives has lead to greater transparency and more rational pricing of credit.
Chapter 11 8
Risk Exposure
Increased bankruptcies, both corporate and personal, are reasons for a renewed interest in credit risk.
When collateral values deteriorate and become more volatile, these changes get
lenders’ attention.
Chapter 11 9
Information Technology
The potential for “riskmetrics” techniques to be applied as “creditmetrics” procedures has sparked a renewed interest in credit risk.
This increased quantitative and technical approach to credit management and analysis has attracted financial engineers to the field.
Also, credit derivatives has renewed interest in credit risk.
Chapter 11 10
Customers
As debt instruments such as corporate bonds and commercial paper has expanded, banks have been pressured to find new customers.
This greater exposure to default risk has been another driver in the renewed interest in credit risk.
Chapter 11 11
Kapital Adequacy
The revised Basle Accord further heightens the interest in credit risk by offering banks three ways of calculating minimum capital requirements:
1. A standardized method, which most community banks are expected to select, and
2. Two internal ratings-based methods
Chapter 11 12
Reorganization of the Bank Lending Function
The treatment of the loan product is moving toward that of bonds, which means emphasis on:
1. Present value or price as discounted future cash flows
2. Probability of default (d) and default risk
3. Recovery rates ()
4. Prepayment risk
5. External ratings (Moody’s and S&P)
Chapter 11 13
Modern Portfolio Theory
Two important and recent developments in bank loan portfolios focus on loan-portfolio models designed to:
1. Identify the efficient loan portfolio and determine how to move toward it, and
2. To estimate the amount of economic capital needed to support the loan portfolio, e.g., RAROC (Ch. 10)
Chapter 11 14
The Current State of Credit Risk and Portfolio
Management
Areas of Loan-Portfolio Management Business Strategy Risk Grading (i.e., rating a loan as in a bond
rating) Risk Pricing (e.g., RAROC) Portfolio Grooming (e.g., rebalancing by selling
and buying loans) Risk-management organization and
governance (e.g., CREDCO)
Chapter 11 15
Categories of Loan-Portfolio Managers (survey results) Passive traditionalists (19 out of 64 banks): They
accept market pricing and hold almost everything they underwrite
Active traditionalists (30 out of 64): They use risk grading, risk pricing, and measures of product/customer profitability
Semi-advanced practitioners (11 out of 64): They practice a business strategy with more flexible risk limits and develop solutions to poor market pricing
Advanced practitioners (4 out of 64): They are on the cutting edge of loan-portfolio management in terms of the five areas on the previous slide
Chapter 11 16
The Evolutionary Path of Credit Portfolio Management Four risk-altering techniques
include: 1. Risk grading and pricing to reduce
mispriced underwriting 2. Sell/syndicate loans 3. Buy loans of others 4. Use credit derivatives
Chapter 11 17
Bank Loans Versus Bonds Bank loans Senior secured Shorter maturity More covenants Often amended Freely callable Floating rate
Bonds Unsecured,
subordinate Longer maturity Fewer covenants Difficult to amend Call protected Fixed rate
Chapter 11 18
Hybrid Products Modified collateral Longer maturity Covenant light Relationship banks amend Light call protection Floating rate
Chapter 11 19
Bond Markets Versus Bank Loan Markets Bond markets Underwriters/
issuers Investors Rating agencies These parties are
pervasively independent
Loan markets Bankers foster
functional “independence” among credit groups, customers, and portfolio managers
Chapter 11 20
Implications for Loan Quality Bank loans should be safer and
therefore have lower yields Recovery rates should be higher
for intermediated debt than for bonds
How will subprime lending affect loan quality?
Chapter 11 21
Quantitative and Technical Approaches Classification models Value-at-risk (VAR) Credit derivatives
Chapter 11 22
Classification Models
Classification models (also called “artificial intelligence”) are statistical devices that can be used as tools to complement decision-making
These models are designed to replicate the decisions of an expert in the field
They are best viewed as tools or aids to decision-making
Chapter 11 23
Decision Trees
Decision trees can be used to develop binary
classification rules to assign observations to a
priori groups (e.g., bankrupt vs. nonbankrupt or
good loan vs. bad loan).
The main advantages of these tests are:
1. Use under very general conditions
2. Ease of understanding, and in some cases
3. Ease of computation
Figure 11-2 (p. 362), cash flow and leverage
Chapter 11 24
Loan-Classification Models:
Risk Categories
1. Current – Loan is being paid back on schedule and perceived to be an acceptable banking risk.
2. Especially Mentioned – Loan has some minor problem (e.g., incomplete documentation) requiring it to be “criticized”.
3. Substandard – Loan has weaknesses presenting some chance of default.
4. Doubtful – Loan has considerable weakness and the bank is likely, say 50% chance, of sustaining a loss.
5. Loss – Loan is deemed to be uncollectible. Such loans are usually written or charged off.
Chapter 11 25
Zeta Analysis
Model for identifying the bankruptcy risk of corporations. The following seven variables were good discriminators between failed and nonfailed business firms:
1. Return on assets => EBIT/total assets2. Stability of earnings => Inverse of the standard error
of estimate around a 10-year trend in ROA3. Debt service => EBIT/total interest payments4. Cumulative profitability => retained earnings/total
assets5. Liquidity => current assets/current liabilities6. Capitalization => five-year average market value of
firm’s common stock/total long-term capital7. Size => firm’s total assets
Chapter 11 26
A Z-Score (1968 Model) for Strategic Electronics Corp. (Ch. 10)
Z = 1.2(0.5683) + 1.4(0.6307) + 1.4(0.0642 + 3.3(0.686)* +
1.0(1.2817) = 3.4701 > 2.675 =>
Nonbankrupt-group prediction *Based on ratio of book value of
equity to book value of total debt as MVE is not available
Chapter 11 27
A Loan-Surveillance Model A logit model: P = 1/(1 + e-y), P = the
probability of noncompliance Y = ΣbiXi
Intercept = -2.04 X1 = (Cash + mkt sec)/TA = -5.24 X2=Net sales/(cash + mkt sec)= 0.005 X3 = EBIT/TA = -6.65 X4 = Total debt/TA = 4.40 X5 = Fixed assets/NW = 0.079 X6 = Working cap/net sales = -0.102
Chapter 11 28
Loan Surveillance for SEC (Ch. 10) X1 = 0.043 X2 = 30.03 X3 = 0.064 X4 = 0.274 X5 = 1.458 X6 = 0.0828 y = -1.53 and P = 0.18 < 0.5 =>
Compliance group
Chapter 11 29
Reconciling Research and Practice in Commercial
Lending
Four major drawbacks to closing the gap between research (defined as theory and empirical models) and practice remain:
1. The inability to quantify the customer-relationship aspect of the lending process
2. The reluctance of lenders to share information with researchers (under the guise of protecting customer confidentiality)
3. Even if such information sharing did occur, there is a lack of data on rejected borrowers
4. The backward-looking nature of classification studies
Chapter 11 30
Value-at-Risk (VAR)
J.P. Morgan’s value-at-risk methodology, also
known as “riskmetrics” was introduced in 1994
Development was prompted by the R and K in
TRICK
J.P. Morgan wanted a daily measure of the risk
exposure (R) in the bank’s trading portfolio
Chapter 11 31
The Intuition of VAR and Extension to Credit Risk Key ingredients in VAR
1. Expected maximum loss or worst-case scenario
2. Target time horizon 3. Confidence level or interval
Chapter 11 32
Objectives and Complexity of Credit-Risk Models Can CreditMetrics do for credit risk
what RiskMetrics did for market risk?
Inputs needed to estimate market value for bank loans 1. External credit ratings 2. Probability of a rating change 3. Recovery rates for defaulted loans 4. Loan rates and credit spreads
Chapter 11 33
Credit Events, VAR Calculations, and Distributions of Loan Values
Table 11-3, p. 371 Figure 11-3, p. 372
Chapter 11 34
Three-Stage Approach to Calculating VAR due to Credit
Risk
Stage 1 – Focuses on exposures including facilities, commitments, bond positions, receivables, and OBSAs
Stage 2 – Focuses on VAR due to credit Stage 3 – Highlights correlations, rating
services, and equity series with emphasis on models (e.g., correlations) and joint credit-quality probabilities
Chapter 11 35
Issues and Problems Validation of the risk measure (Basel) The correlation problem (industry
concentration) Creditworthiness and the probability
of default, d = f(credit rating, maturity…)
Rating migration likelihoods (transition matrices)
Credit quality vs. rating changes
Chapter 11 36
KMV’s Expected Default Frequency (EDFTM) Figures 11-4 and 11-5, pp. 375-376 EDF is the area in a probability
distribution in which the market value of assets falls below the par value of debt, that is, where default occurs
KMV sells two products: EDF measures and portfolio-management tools
Option-pricing framework
Chapter 11 37
Critique of Rating Changes Expected (based on historical
averages) and actual default rates can differ
Default rates overlap within rating categories
Rating changes are not timely
Chapter 11 38
Practical Implications for Loan Portfolio Management
Managers of portfolios subject to default risk have two major concerns:
1. The average or expected loss associated with the portfolio and
2. The range or distribution of possible losses about that expectation.
Chapter 11 39
Credit Derivatives
A credit derivative is an over-the-counter, off-balance sheet contract the value of which is derived, directly or indirectly, from the price of a credit instrument
Situation that credit derivatives protect against are called “credit events” and include the following:
Payment default on a specific “reference asset” of the “reference party”
Payment default on designated financial obligations of the reference party
Bankruptcy of the reference party
Chapter 11 40
Credit Swaps: The Most Popular Credit Derivative Two types:
1. A pure-credit or default swap: pay a premium to protect against an adverse credit event
Contract components Notional amount Term or maturity Reference party (whose credit is traded) Reference asset
Hedge ratio = LIED(loan)/LIED(bond)
Chapter 11 41
Credit Swaps (continued) 2. Total-return swap: More
complicated as it involves an element of market risk associated with interest-rate movements. It is in this sense that a total-return swap is not a “pure credit swap”
Example (p. 379)
Chapter 11 42
Pricing Credit Swaps Credit spread = compensation for
bearing risk Credit-swap price = compensation
for bearing risk Credit-swap price ~ credit spread –
credit charge Credit-swap price ~ credit spread
(for a risk-free counterparty
Chapter 11 43
Pricing Risky Counterparties Three ingredients required:
1. Yield curve for the risky swap counterparty
2. An estimate of the correlation between default by the reference asset and default by the swap party
3. Recovery rate for the risky swap counterparty
Chapter 11 44
Potential Weaknesses and Pitfalls in the Modern Methods “Hunters”, “skinners”, and traders Will traders care about relationships
and credit quality? If you don’t like the loan, sell it!
Taleb’s critique of VAR (“charlatanism”) Alternatives to VAR: reduce leverage,
better diversification, and less reliance on dynamic hedging
Chapter 11 45
CHAPTER SUMMARY Structural changes in financial markets
and the bank lending function coupled with advances in financial engineering have generated a renewed interest in credit risk TRICK -ization factors
Modern portfolio theory, quantitative techniques and models, and credit derivatives