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Chapter 11

Structured Types,

Data Abstraction and Classes

Dale/Weems/Headington

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Chapter 11 Topics Meaning of a Structured Data Type Declaring and Using a struct Data Type C++ union Data Type Meaning of an Abstract Data Type Declaring and Using a class Data Type Using Separate Specification and

Implementation Files Invoking class Member Functions in Client

Code C++ class Constructors

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C++ Data TypesC++ Data Types

structured

array struct union class

address

pointer reference

simple

integral enum

char short int long bool

floating

float double long double

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Structs

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Structured Data Type

A structured data type is a type in which each value is a collection of component items.

the entire collection has a single name

each component can be accessed individually

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C++ Structured Type

often we have related information of various types that we’d like to store together for convenient access under the same identifier, for example . . .

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thisAnimal

5000

.id 2037581

.name “giant panda”

.genus “Ailuropoda”

.species “melanoluka”

.country “China”

.age 18

.weight 234.6

.health Good

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anotherAnimal

6000

.id 5281003

.name “llama”

.genus “Lama”

.species “peruana”

.country “Peru”

.age 7

.weight 278.5

.health Excellent

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struct AnimalType

enum HealthType { Poor, Fair, Good, Excellent } ;

struct AnimalType // declares a struct data type{ // does not allocate memory

int id ;string name ;string genus ;string species ; struct members string country ; int age ; float weight ;

} ;

AnimalType thisAnimal ; // declare variables of AnimalType

AnimalType anotherAnimal ;

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struct type Declaration

SYNTAX struct TypeName // does not allocate memory {

MemberList } ;

MemberList SYNTAX

DataType MemberName ;

DataType MemberName ; . . .

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struct type Declaration

The struct declaration names a type and names the members of the struct.

It does not allocate memory for any variables of that type!

You still need to declare your struct variables.

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More about struct type declarations

If struct type declaration precedes all functions visible throughout the rest of the file (global scope).

If it is placed within a function, only that function can use it (local scope).

Common to place struct type decl. in (.h) header file#include that file.

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More about struct type declarations

Members of different struct types MAY have the same identifiers (names).

struct Student struct Instructor

{ {int id; int id;

float gpa; float salary;

} }

Non-struct variable MAY have the same identifier as a structure member.

Student s;

float gpa;

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Accessing struct Members

Dot ( period ) is the member selection operator.

After struct type declaration: struct members can be used in your program only when they are preceded by

– dot– a struct variable name

EXAMPLESAnimalType thisAnimal,

anotherAnimal;thisAnimal.weightanotherAnimal.country

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Valid operations on a struct member depend only on its type

thisAnimal.age = 18;

thisAnimal.id = 2037581;

cin >> thisAnimal.weight;

getline ( cin, thisAnimal.species );

thisAnimal.name = “giant panda”;

thisAnimal.genus[ 0 ] = toupper (thisAnimal.genus[ 0 ] ) ;

thisAnimal.age++;

struct AnimalType { long id ;

string name ;string genus ;string species; string country

int age ;

float weight ;

HealthType health ;

} ;

AnimalType thisAnimal;

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Aggregate Operations

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Aggregate Operation

is an operation on a

data structure as a whole

as opposed to an operation on an individual component of the data structure

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Aggregate struct Operations

NOT ALLOWED I/O arithmetic comparisons of entire struct variables

Operations ALLOWED on entire struct variable:

assignment to another struct variable of same type pass to a function as argument (by value or by reference)

return as value of a function

see time1.cpp time2.cpp

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Examples of aggregate struct operations

anotherAnimal = thisAnimal ; // assignment

WriteOut(thisAnimal); // value parameter

ChangeWeightAndAge(thisAnimal); // reference parameter

thisAnimal = GetAnimalData( ); // return value of function

NOW WE’LL WRITE THE 3 FUNCTIONS USED HERE . . .

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void WriteOut( /* in */ AnimalType thisAnimal)

// Prints out values of all members of thisAnimal

// Precondition: all members of thisAnimal are assigned

// Postcondition: all members have been written out{

cout << “ID # “ << thisAnimal.id << thisAnimal.name << endl ;

cout << thisAnimal.genus << thisAnimal.species << endl ;

cout << thisAnimal.country << endl ;

cout << thisAnimal.age << “ years “ << endl ;

cout << thisAnimal.weight << “ lbs. “ << endl ;

cout << “General health : “ ;

WriteWord ( thisAnimal.health ) ;}

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void ChangeAge ( /* inout */ AnimalType& thisAnimal )

// Adds 1 to age// Precondition: thisAnimal.age is assigned // Postcondition: thisAnimal.age == thisAnimal.age@entry + 1

{

thisAnimal.age++ ;

}

Passing a struct Type by Reference

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AnimalType GetAnimalData ( void )

// Obtains all information about an animal from keyboard

// Postcondition:// Function value == AnimalType members entered at kbd{

AnimalType thisAnimal ;

char response ;

do { // have user enter all members until they are correct.

.

.

} while (response != ‘Y’ ) ;

return thisAnimal ;

}

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Hierarchical Structures

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Hierarchical Structures

A struct member can be of another struct type.

This is called nested or hierarchical structures.

Hierarchical structures are useful when there is detailed info in each record.

FOR EXAMPLE . . .

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struct MachineRec

Information about each machine in a shop contains:

an idNumber,

a written description,

the purchase date,

the cost,

and a historical statistics (including failure rate, number of days down, and date of last service).

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struct DateType

{ int month ; // Assume 1 . . 12

int day ; // Assume 1 . . 31

int year ; // Assume 1900 . . 2050

};

struct StatisticsType

{ float failRate ;

DateType lastServiced ; // DateType is a struct type

int downDays ;

} ;

struct MachineRec

{ int idNumber ;

string description ;

StatisticsType history ; // StatisticsType is a struct type

DateType purchaseDate ;

float cost ;

} ;

MachineRec machine ;

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struct type variable machine

7000

.idNumber .description . history .purchaseDate .cost

.month .day .year

5719 “BULLDOZ…” 3 21 1995 78000.

.failrate .lastServiced .downdays

.02 6 25 1999 4.month .day .year

machine.history.lastServiced.year has value 1999

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Unions

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Unions in C++

DEFINITION

A union is a struct that holds only one of its members at a time during program execution.

EXAMPLE

union WeightType

{

long wtInOunces ; int wtInPounds; only one at a time

float wtInTons;

} ;

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Using Unions

union WeightType // declares a union type

{

long wtInOunces ;

int wtInPounds;

float wtInTons;

} ;

WeightType weight; // declares a union variable

weight.wtInTons = 4.83 ;

// Weight in tons is no longer needed. Reuse the memory space.

weight.wtInPounds = 35; // see Unionex.cpp

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Abstraction

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Abstraction

Is the separation of the essential qualities of an object from the details of how it works or is composed

Essential qualities <<<<>>>> details

Focuses on what, not how Like a table of contents Is necessary for managing large, complex

software projects

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Control Abstraction separates the logical properties of an action

from its implementation logical properties <<<>>> implementation

. . .

Search (list, item, length, where, found); . . .

the function call depends on the function’s specification (description), not its implementation (algorithm)

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Data Abstraction

separates the logical properties of a data type from its implementation

LOGICAL PROPERTIES IMPLEMENTATION

What are the possible values? How can this be done in C++?

What operations will be needed? How can existing data types be used?

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Data Type

set of values(domain)

allowable operationson those values

FOR EXAMPLE, data type short has

domain

-32768 . . . 32767

operations

+, -, *, /, %, >>, <<

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Abstract Data Type

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Abstract Data Type (ADT)

a data type whose properties (domain and operations) WHAT

are specified independently of any particular implementation HOW

FOR EXAMPLE . . .

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ADT Specification Example (Properties)

TYPETimeType

DOMAIN

Each TimeType value is a time in hours, minutes, and seconds.

OPERATIONSSet the time

Print the time

Increment by one second

Compare 2 times for equality

Determine if one time is “less than” another

Notice NO Implementation given!!

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Another ADT Specification

TYPEComplexNumberType

DOMAIN

Each value is an ordered pair of real numbers (a, b) representing a + bi.

OPERATIONSInitialize the complex number

Write the complex number

Add

Subtract

Multiply

Divide

Determine the absolute value of a complex number

Notice NO Implementation given!!

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ADT Implementation means

choosing a specific data representation for the abstract data using data types that already exist (built-in or programmer-defined)

writing functions for each allowable operation

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10 45 27

Several Possible Representations of TimeType

3 int variables

3 strings

3-element int array

actual choice of representation depends on time, space, and algorithms needed to implement operations

10 45 27

“10” “45” “27”

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Some Possible Representationsof ComplexNumberTypestruct with 2 float members

2-element float array

-16.2 5.8

-16.2 5.8

.real .imag

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Classes

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C++ Data TypesC++ Data Types

structured

array struct union class

address

pointer reference

simple

integral enum

char short int long bool

floating

float double long double

Class A structured type

(many components, access to each) in a programming language used to represent an ADT

Not a passive data structure (only being acted upon)

An active data structure containing data & operations in a single unit

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class TimeType Specification// SPECIFICATION FILE ( timetype.h )

class TimeType // declares a class data type{ // does not allocate memory

public : // 5 public function members

void Set ( int hours , int mins , int secs ) ;void Increment ( ) ;void Write ( ) const ;bool Equal ( TimeType otherTime ) const ; bool LessThan ( TimeType otherTime ) const ;

private : // 3 private data members

int hrs ; int mins ; int secs ;

} ;

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Use of C++ data Type class

facilitates re-use of C++ code for an ADT

software that uses the class is called a client

variables of the class type are called class objects or class instances

client code uses public member functions to handle its class objects

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Client Code Using TimeType#include “timetype.h” // includes specification of the classusing namespace std ;

int main ( ){

TimeType currentTime ; // declares 2 objects of TimeType TimeType endTime ; bool done = false ;

currentTime.Set ( 5, 30, 0 ) ; endTime.Set ( 18, 30, 0 ) ; while ( ! done )

{ . . .

currentTime.Increment ( ) ;if ( currentTime.Equal ( endTime ) )

done = true ; } ;}

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class type Definition

The class definition creates a data type and names the members of the class.

It does not allocate memory for any variables of that type!

Client code still needs to declare class variables.

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C++ Data Type class represents an ADT

2 kinds of class members: data members and function members

class members are private by default

data members are generally private

function members are generally declared public

private class members can be accessed only by the class member functions (and friend functions), not by client code.

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class TimeType Specification// SPECIFICATION FILE ( timetype.h )

class TimeType // declares a class data type{ // does not allocate memory

public : // 5 public function members

void Set ( int hours , int mins , int secs ) ;void Increment ( ) ;void Write ( ) const ;bool Equal ( TimeType otherTime ) const ; bool LessThan ( TimeType otherTime ) const ;

private : // 3 private data members

int hrs ; int mins ; int secs ;

} ;

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Aggregate class Operations

built-in operations valid on class objects are:

member selection using dot ( . ) operator ,

assignment to another class variable using ( = ),

pass to a function as argument

(by value or by reference),

return as value of a function

other operations can be defined as class member functions

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2 separate files Generally Used for class Type

// SPECIFICATION FILE ( timetype .h ) // Specifies the data and function members. class TimeType { public: . . .

private: . . . } ;

// IMPLEMENTATION FILE ( timetype.cpp ) // Implements the TimeType member functions.

. . .

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Implementation File for TimeType

// IMPLEMENTATION FILE ( timetype.cpp ) // Implements the TimeType member functions.

#include “ timetype.h” // also must appear in client code #include <iostream>

. . .

bool TimeType :: Equal ( /* in */ TimeType otherTime ) const // Postcondition: // Function value == true, if this time equals otherTime // == false , otherwise { return ( (hrs == otherTime.hrs) && (mins == otherTime.mins) && (secs ==

otherTime.secs) ) ; }

. . . // see s:\cp2\cpp\time\TestTime

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Familiar Class Instances and Function Members

the member selection operator ( . ) selects either data members or function members

header files iostream and fstream declare the istream, ostream,and ifstream, ofstream I/O classes

both cin and cout are class objects and get and ignore are function members

cin.get (someChar) ;cin.ignore (100, ‘\n’) ;

these statements declare myInfile as an instance of class ifstream and invoke function member open

ifstream myInfile ;

myInfile.open ( “A:\\mydata.dat” ) ;

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Information Hiding

Class implementation details are hidden from the client’s view. This is called information hiding.

Public functions of a class provide the interface between the client code and the class objects.

clientcode

specification implementation

abstraction barrier

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Information Hiding" "... the purpose of hiding is to make inaccessible certaindetails that should not affect other parts of a system."

-- [Ross et al, 1975]

"... [I]nformation hiding: a module is characterized by theinformation it hides from other modules, which are called itsclients. The hidden information remains a secret to the clientmodules."

-- [Ghezzi et al, 1991]

"[Information hiding is] the principle that users of a softwarecomponent (such as a class) need to know only the essentialdetails of how to initialize and access the component, and do notneed to know the details of the implementation."

-- [Budd, 1991]

"The technique of encapsulating software design decisions inmodules in such a way that the module's interfaces reveal littleas possible about the module's inner workings; thus each module isa 'black box' to the other modules in

-- [IEEE, 1983]

"The process of hiding all the details of an object that do notcontribute to its essential characteristics; typically, thestructure of an object is hidden, as well as the implementationof its methods. The terms information hiding and encapsulationare usually interchangeable."

-- [Booch, 1991]

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Scope Resolution Operator ( :: ) C++ programs typically use several class types

different classes can have member functions with the same identifier, like Write( )

member selection operator is used to determine the class whose member function Write( ) is invoked

currentTime .Write( ) ; // class TimeTypenumberZ .Write( ) ; // class ComplexNumberType

in the implementation file, the scope resolution operator is used in the heading before the function member’s name to specify its class

void TimeType :: Write ( ) const{ . . .

}

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TimeType Class Instance Diagrams

Private data:

hrs

mins

secs

Set

Increment

Write

LessThan

Equal

Private data:

hrs

mins

secs

Set

Increment

Write

LessThan

Equal

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2

18

30

0

currentTime endTime

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Use of const with Member Functions

when a member function does not modify private data members

use const in both function prototype (specification file) heading of function implementation (implementation file)

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class TimeType Specification// SPECIFICATION FILE ( timetype.h )

class TimeType // declares a class data type{ // does not allocate

memory

public : // 5 public function members

void Set ( int hours , int mins , int secs ) ;void Increment ( ) ;void Write ( ) const ;bool Equal ( TimeType otherTime ) const ; bool LessThan ( TimeType otherTime ) const ;

private : // 3 private data members

int hrs ; int mins ; int secs ;

} ;

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Example Using const with a Member Function

void TimeType :: Write ( ) const

// Postcondition: Time has been output in form HH:MM:SS

{ if ( hrs < 10 )

cout << ‘0’ ;

cout << hrs << ‘:’ ;

if ( mins < 10 )

cout << ‘0’ ;

cout << mins << ‘:’ ;

if ( secs < 10 )

cout << ‘0’ ;

cout << secs ;

}

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Separate Compilation and Linking of Files

timetype.h

client.cpp timetype.cpp

client.obj

client.exe

timetype.obj

Compiler Compiler

Linker

#include “timetype.h”

implementation file

specification file

main program

Projects

Many program files (nodes) compiled linked

as one executable (.exe)

Project files have .dsw extensions

The project name will be the executable name

Creating a MS VC++ Project File -> New Click on Projects Tab Select Target Type:

Win 32 Console Application Enter Project Name

(becomes name of workspace folder) Modify the workspace folder’s path to r:\.. Select empty project Click OK (new folder will be created on r:) Debug Subfolder created for .obj and .exe

Adding Source Code to a MSVC++ Project

To add new source code file to currently active project:

Select File -> New Click on Files tab Select C++ Source File as the file type Enter File name Modify, if necessary, the file’s folder path Click OK

Adding Existing Files to a MSVC++ Project

To add new source code file(s) to currently active project:

Select File View in Workspace Pane (LHS) Right Click Source Files Folder Select “Add files to Folder” Browse and select files Click OK

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#define Directive

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often several program files use the same header file containing typedef statements, constants, or class type declarations--but, it is a compile-time error to define the same identifier twice

this preprocessor directive syntax is used to avoid the compilation error that would otherwise occur from multiple uses of #include for the same header file

#ifndef Preprocessor_Identifier

#define Preprocessor_Identifier . . .

#endif

Avoiding Multiple Inclusion of Header Files

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Example Using Preprocessor Directive #ifndef

// timetype .h FOR COMPILATION THE CLASS DECLARATION IN

// SPECIFICATION FILE FILE timetype.h WILL BE INCLUDED ONLY ONCE

#ifndef TIME_H

#define TIME_H // timetype .cpp // client.cpp

// IMPLEMENTATION FILE // Appointment programclass TimeType{ #include “timetype.h” #include “timetype.h”

public: . . . . . . int main ( void )

{

private: . . .

. . . }

} ;

#endif

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Constructors

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Class Constructors

a class constructor is a member function whose purpose is to INITIALIZE the private data members of a class object

the name of a constructor is always the name of the class, and there is no return type for the constructor

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Class Constructors

a class may have several constructors with different parameter lists. A constructor with no parameters is the default constructor

a constructor is implicitly invoked when a class object is declared--if there are parameters, their values are listed in parentheses in the declaration

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Specification of TimeType Class Constructors

class TimeType // timetype.h{public : // 7 function members

TimeType ( int initHrs , int initMins , int initSecs ) ; // constructor TimeType ( ) ; // default constructor

void Set ( int hours , int minutes , int seconds ) ;void Increment ( ) ;void Write ( ) const ;bool Equal ( TimeType otherTime ) const ; bool LessThan ( TimeType otherTime ) const ;

private : // 3 data members

int hrs ; int mins ; int secs ;

} ;

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Implementation of TimeType Default Constructor

TimeType :: TimeType ( )

// Default Constructor

// Postcondition:

// hrs == 0 && mins == 0 && secs == 0

{

hrs = 0 ;

mins = 0 ;

secs = 0 ;

}

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Implementation of Another TimeType Class Constructor

TimeType :: TimeType ( /* in */ int initHrs,

/* in */ int initMins,

/* in */ int initSecs )

// Constructor

// Precondition: 0 <= initHrs <= 23 && 0 <= initMins <= 59

// 0 <= initSecs <= 59

// Postcondition:

// hrs == initHrs && mins == initMins && secs == initSecs

{

hrs = initHrs ;

mins = initMins ;

secs = initSecs ;

}

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Automatic invocation of constructors occurs

TimeType departureTime ; // default constructor invoked

TimeType movieTime (19, 30, 0 ) ; // parameterized constructor

departureTime movieTime

Private data:

hrs

mins

secs

Set

Increment

Write

LessThan

Equal

0

0

0

Private data:

hrs

mins

secs

Set

Increment

Write

LessThan

Equal

19

30

0

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Why Objects?Why Objects Anyway? Object-oriented programming doesn't fundamentally add much (it doesn't lead to much

shorter programs) But, it is a style more appropriate to human psychology. Thesis: Humans as part of their basic function are highly adept at recognizing and

interacting with everyday objects. Everyday objects: Things we encounter everyday

Properties: active: not fully controlled by us, with internal evolving state. communicative: we can "send messages". encapsulated: some of the properties are not visible (though we can learn some of it

by sending messages) nested: complex objects have many object components (which in turn have object

components etc) uniquely named (more or less) Objects in OOP (Object-Oriented Programming) also have all of these features.

Conclusion: It is thus good to have programs create entities like these objects we are familiar with.

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See TimeTestwConstructor.dsw

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Microsoft Visual C++ Project Files (Keepers)

.dsp Project file .dsw Workspace file .exe Executable program

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Microsoft Visual C++ Temporary Files

Many are large and can be removed! .ilk Incremental link file .pch Precompiled header .pdb Precompiled debugging info .idb Incremental debug info .ncb Supports viewing classes .opt Workspace configuration .plg Build log file .obj Machine code translations

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