Chapter 12: Cognitive Development in School-Age

Children12.1 Cognitive Processes12.2 The Nature of Intelligence12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skills12.4 Academic Skills12.5 Effective Schools

12.1 Cognitive Processes

Concrete Operational Thinking

Memory Skills

Concrete Operational Thinking

From 7 to 11 yearsThinking based on mental operations (logical, mathematical, spatial operations)Operations can be reversedLimit: focus on the real, not the abstract

12.1 Cognitive Processes

Memory Skills

Memory strategies are gradually learned during childhoodSuccessful learning involves identifying goals and choosing strategiesKnowledge helps organize memory, but can distort recallScripts aid recall, but can distort memory

12.1 Cognitive Processes

Use of Memory Strategies

Effects of Knowledge on Memory

Network of Knowledge

12.2 The Nature of Intelligence

Psychometric Theories

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Psychometric Theories

Use patterns of test performance as starting pointTest scores provide evidence for general intelligence (g) and specific intelligencesHierarchical theories are a compromise between general and specific theories

12.2 The Nature of Intelligence

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Instead of using test scores, draws upon research in child development, brain-damaged adults, and exceptional talentProposes 7 intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal

12.2 The Nature of Intelligence

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Contextual subtheory--intelligence involves skillful adaptation to a specific environmentExperiential subtheory--on novel tasks, intelligence is shown by readily applying pertinent knowledge; on familiar tasks, by solving them automaticallyComponential subtheory--any intelligent act consists of cognitive components12.2 The Nature of Intelligence

12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skills

Binet and the Develoment of Intelligence TestingDo Tests Work?Hereditary and Environmental FactorsImpact of Ethnicity and Social ClassGender Differences in Intellectual Abilities and Achievement

Binet and the Development of Intelligence Testing

Binet used mental age to distinguish “bright” from “dull”Led to the Stanford-Binet which gives a single IQ score; average = 100WISC, devised in the 1930s, gives verbal and performance IQs

12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skill

Distribution of IQ Scores

Sample Items from WISC-II Verbal Scale

Sample Items from the WISC-II Performance Scale

Do Tests Work?

Are they reliable? In the short term, yes. In the longer term, less so.Are they valid? Yes, as long as validity is defined as success in schoolValidity can be increased with dynamic testing

12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skill

Hereditary and Environmental Factors

Effects of heredity shown in family studies and effects of environment shown in intervention studies (e.g., Carolina Abecedarian Project)Heredity also influences patterns of intellectual development (twins, adoptees)

12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skill

Correlations of IQ for Family Members

Correlation Between Children’s IQ Scores and Biological and Adoptive

Parents’ IQ Scores

Effects of Intervention on Test Scores

Impact of Ethnicity and Social Class

Middle-class, white children tend to get higher scoresCulture-fair intelligence tests reduce the difference but don’t eliminate itTest-taking styles must be considered, too

12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skill

Racial Differences in IQ Scores

Culture-fair Test Item

Gender Differences in Intellectual Ability…

Verbal ability: girls excel at reading & writing, less likely to have language-related disabilitySpatial ability: boys surpass girlsMath: girls often get better grades, but boys have higher test scores

12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skill

12.4 Academic Skills

Reading Skills

Writing Skills

Math Skills

Reading Skills

Prereading skills: knowing letters and letter sounds Sounding out and whole word recognition used in readingChanges in working memory, knowledge, monitoring, and reading strategies improve comprehension

12.4 Academic Skills

Writing Skills

Older writers have more to tellOlder writers know how to organize their writing (knowledge telling vs knowledge transforming strategies)Older writers are better able to deal with the mechanical requirements of writingOlder writers are better able to revise

12.4 Academic Skills

Math SkillsChildren use many different strategies to add and subtractCompared to students in other countries, U.S. students not good In other countries, children spend more time in school, have more homework, parents have higher standards, & parents emphasize effort

12.4 Academic Skills

12.5 Effective Schools

School-Based Influences on Student Achievement

Teacher-Based Influences on Students Achievement

School-Based Influences on Student AchievementSchools are successful when they emphasize academic excellenceAre safe and nurturingInvolve parentsMonitor progress of students, teachers, and programs

12.5 Effective Schools

Teacher-Based Influences on Student Achievement

Students learn when teachers manage classrooms effectivelyAre responsible for students’ learningEmphasize mastery of topicsTeach actively and pay attention to pacingValue tutoring and teach techniques for monitoring own learning12.5 Effective Schools