CHAPTER 12: DEVELOPMENT

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Developmental Psychology

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Developmental psychology Branch of psychology that studies the

patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life

Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue

HereditaryInfluences based on the genetic makeup of an individual that influence growth and development throughout life

EnvironmentThe influence of parents, siblings, family, friends, schooling, nutrition, and all other experiences in which a child is exposed

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Nature and Nurture

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Strategies for Studying Development

Determining the relative influence of nature and nurture

Study of identical twins (those who are genetically identical

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Specific Research Approaches

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Cross-sectional researchPeople of different ages are compared at the same point in time

Longitudinal researchBehavior of one or more participants is traced as the participants age

Cross-sequential researchCombines above by taking a number of different age groups and examining them over several points in time

Prenatal Development: The Basics of Genetics

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Chromosomes Rod-shaped structures that contain the

basic hereditary information Genes

Smaller units through which genetic information is transmitted

DNA Biological equivalent of “software” that

programs the future development of all parts of the body’s hardware

Prenatal Development: The Basics of Genetics

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Prenatal Development: The Basics of Genetics

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Gene therapy Heath care providers inject corrective or

remove defective genes to correct particular diseases directly into a patient’s bloodstream

Raises ethical and moral issues Cloning

Most Americans oppose cloning human embryos

Prenatal Development: The Basics of Genetics

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The Earliest Development

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Germinal period First two weeks Zygote

The new cell that is formed by fertilization Embryonic period

2 to 8 weeks Embryo

Rapid growth of the zygote that has developed a heart, brain, intestinal tract, and other organs

The Earliest Development

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Fetal period 8 weeks until birth Fetus

Age of viability Point at which it can survive if born

prematurely (about 24 weeks) Critical periods (Sensitive period)

Times during development when specific events have their greatest impact

Genetic Influences on the Fetus

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Phenylketonuria (PKU)Cannot produce enzyme required for normal development-results in profound mental retardation

Sickle-cell anemiaAbnormal red blood cells-affects 10% of African Americans

Tay-Sachs diseaseBody unable to break down fat-found in Jews of Eastern European descent

Down syndromeExtra chromosome-mental retardation and unique physical and medical characteristics-basketball players

Prenatal Environmental Influences

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Teratogens Environmental agents that produce a birth

defect Mother’s nutrition and emotional state Mother’s illness Mother’s drug use Alcohol and nicotine

Fetal alcohol syndrome

Prenatal Environmental Influences

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Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) One out of 750 infants Below-average intelligence Growth delays Facial deformities

Prenatal Environmental Influences

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Alternate Paths to Conception

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In vitro fertilization (IVF) Woman’s eggs are removed from her

ovaries, and a man’s sperm is used to fertilize the eggs in a laboratory, then is implanted in a woman’s uterus

Alternate Paths to Conception

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Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT)

Both GIFT and ZIFT are procedures in which an egg and sperm or fertilized egg are implanted in a woman’s fallopian tubes

The Extraordinary Newborn

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The Neonate Reflexes

Rooting reflexSucking reflexGag reflexStartle reflexBabinski reflex

During the First Year Rolls over at 3 months Sits without support at 6 months Stands alone at about 11 months Walks at just over one year old

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Development of the Senses: Taking in the World

Habituation The decrease in the response to a stimulus

that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimuli

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Physical Development

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Development of Social Behavior Attachment

The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual

Lorenz and imprinting-Austrian behaviorist who studied geese behavior.

Found that goslings who hatched and immediately saw him, followed him as if he were their mother.

Labeled this behavior IMPRINTING

It is behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed.

imprinted

Harry Harlow

Classic study on attachment.

Given a choice between a wire monkey that provided food and a soft, heated monkey, a baby monkey choose the warm monkey most of the time.

Showed that attachment was much more important than food to infant monkeys.

video

Measuring Attachment

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Ainsworth “strange situation” Experiment that was a quick and direct way

to measure attachment, categories were: Securely attached Avoidant Ambivalent Disorganized-disoriented Securely attached child are happiest and have

more stable adult relationships. video

Attachment

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Social Relationships with Peers

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Play Cultural differences Helps children interpret the meaning of

others’ behavior and develop the capacity to respond appropriately

Daycare High-quality, enriching care can stimulate Low-quality can cause insecurity

Parenting Styles-are critical in shaping their children’s social competence

Authoritarian Rigid, punitive, strict

standards Uninvolved

Detached emotionally, sees role only as providing food, clothing, and shelter

styles

Authoritative/Democratic Firm, sets limits and

goals, uses reasoning, and encourages independence

Permissive Lax, inconsistent,

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Parenting Styles

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Temperament

A basic, innate disposition May bring about particular

kinds of parental child-rearing styles

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Psychosocial Development Erikson’s Theory

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Psychosocial development Involves changes in our interactions and

understanding of one another as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society

Stages are a pairing of the most positive and most negative aspects of the crisis of that period

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

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Trust versus mistrust Birth to 1 ½ years

Autonomy versus shame and doubt 1 ½ to 3 years

Initiative versus guilt 3 to 6 years

Industry versus inferiority 6 to 12 years

Cognitive Development

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Cognitive development-Jean Piaget Process by which a child’s understanding of

the world changes as a function of age and experience

Without having a variety of experiences, the child cannot reach their highest level of cognitive growth.

Piaget’s work is studied all over the world and is largely accepted.

Cognitive Development: Piaget’s View

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Sensorimotor-understanding of the world is based on touching, chewing, shaking and manipulating objects. Birth – 2 years Object permanence is lacking, children

believe that because they can’t see something, it doesn’t exist.

Object permanence begins to appear about 9 months.

Preoperational Stage

Age 2 to 7 years. This stage is characterized by language

development. Children develop internal representations of

objects. Egocentric Thinking-view the world from his

or her own perspective. Principle of Conservation-the knowledge

that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement of physical appearance of objects.video

Cognitive Development: Piaget’s View

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Concrete operational 7-12 years Children are able to think in a more logical

manner Children learn the idea of reversibility-the

idea that changes can be undone by reversing an earlier action video

Although children make important advances in their logical capabilities, their thinking is still concrete and lack abstract and hypothetical thinking

Formal Operational Stage

Formal operational 12 years – adulthood Logical and abstract thinking

Thinking is no longer tied to events the individual observe in the environment but makes use of logical techniques to solve problems

Use of the pendulum problem

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Cognitive Development: Piaget’s View

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Cognitive Development: Piaget’s View

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Information Processing Theory

Information processing Way in which

people take in, use, and store information

Metacognition Awareness and

understanding of one’s own cognitive processes

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Cognitive Development: Vygotsky’s View

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) The level at which

a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own

Scaffolding

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Adolescence: Becoming an Adult

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Adolescence The developmental stage between

childhood and adulthood Puberty

The period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs

begins at about age 11 or 12 for girl and about age 13 or 14 for boys

In girls the first menstruation marks puberty, while for boys the spermarche is the event marking puberty.

Age of Onset

Boys who mature early tend to be better in athletics, are generally more popular with peers and have more positive self-concepts.

Girls who mature early tend to have better self-esteem, but may be ridiculed because of physical development.

Late maturation produced psychological difficulties for both boys and girls.

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Adolescence: Becoming an Adult

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Stormy Adolescence: Myth or Reality

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Adolescent egocentrism A state of self-absorption in which the world

is viewed from one’s own point of view Personal fables

The view that what happens to them is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

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People move through a three-level sequence of moral reasoning in a fixed order

Strongly influenced by Piaget

Gave adolescence boys a moral dilemma and asked them to resolve it

Level 1

Preconventional morality-The consequences determine morality; behavior that is rewarded is right; that which is punished is wrong.Example: a child who steals a toy from another child and does not get caught does not see that action as wrong.

Level 2

Conventional morality-Conformity to social norms is right; non-conformity is wronge.g. A child criticizes his parent for speeding because it is against the law.

Level 3 Postconventional morality

Few people ever reach the highest level (Kohlberg estimates about 20%)

Moral principles determined by the person are used to determine right and wrong and may disagree with societal norms.

E.g. A reported who wrote a controversial story goes to jail rather than reveal the source’s identity

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

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Moral Development of Women

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Kohlberg’s research primarily used men Carol Gilligan (1996) argues that a

fundamental difference exists in the way each gender views moral behavior Morality of caring

Psychosocial Development Erikson’s Theory

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Identity versus role confusion Time of major testing, as adolescents try to

determine what is unique and special about themselves

Intimacy versus isolation Developing close relationships

Psychosocial Development Erikson’s Theory

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Generativity versus stagnation Contributions to one’s family, community,

work, and society, assisting the development of the younger generation

Ego-integrity versus despair Reviewing life’s successes and failures

Psychosocial Development Erikson’s Theory

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Adolescent Suicide

FACTS: Third leading cause of

death for adolescents Male adolescents are 5

times more likely to commit suicide than females, although females attempt suicide more often than males

Rate higher among whites than nonwhites

WARNING SIGNS School problems Frequent incidents of self-

destructive behavior Loss of appetite or

excessive eating Withdrawal from others Sleeping problems Signs of depression Preoccupation with death Putting affairs in order Announcement of

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Adolescent Suicide

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Gender and Sex

Sex Sexual anatomy

and behavior

GenderThe perception of being male or female

Gender and Sex

Gender rolesThe set of expectations, defined by a particular society, that indicate what is appropriate behavior for men and women

Gender and Sex

Sexism Negative attitudes and behavior toward a

person that are based on that person’s gender

Women earn about 20% less then men

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Gender Differences

Personality factors Degree of

aggressiveness-boys tend to be more aggressive

Self-esteem-boys tend to have higher self-esteem

Verbal and nonverbal communication styles-men communicate more power and dominance and women communicate more cooperation

Gender Differences

Cognitive skills IQ scores, learning,

memory, problem solving, and concept-formation skills are about the same.

Biological and evolutionary factors Androgen Estrogen

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Sources of Gender Differences The social environment

Socialization Process by which an individual learn the rules and

norms of appropriate behavior The educational system treats boys and girls

differently, often favoring boys over girls

Early and Middle Adulthood

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Hormone therapy for menopause Poses several dangers Medical consensus

Younger women with severe menopausal symptoms ought to consider HT on a short-term basis

For older women, it provides little benefit, and potential harm

Early and Middle Adulthood

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The peak of health (18 – 25) Body begins to become slightly

less efficient and more susceptible to disease at age 25

Menopause The point at which they stop

menstruating and are no longer fertile

Social Development

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During their early forties, as the idea that their life will end becomes prominent, people may face a Midlife transitionMidlife transition where they begin to question their lives.

Feelings of dissatisfaction with one’s life in the face of physical aging may bring about a Midlife crisisMidlife crisis

Marriage, Children, and Divorce Two-fifths of children will experience the breakup

of the parents’ marriage before they are 18 years old

More than one quarter of all family households are now headed by one parent

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Changing Roles of Men and Women

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Close to 75% of all married women with school-age children are now employed outside the home

Women’s “second shift” Women who work full-time and also carry

most of the responsibility for child-care

The Later Years of Life: Growing Old

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The Later Years of Life: Physical Changes

Wear-and-Tear Theories of Aging Suggest that the

mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently as people age

Waste by-products of energy production eventually accumulate, and mistakes are made when cells divide

Genetic Preprogramming Theories of Aging Suggest that there is a

built-in time limit to the reproduction of human cells, and that after a certain time cells stop dividing or become harmful to the body

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The Social World of Late Adulthood

Disengagement theory of aging Aging produces a gradual

withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels

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The Social World of Late Adulthood

Activity theory of aging Suggests that the people who age

most successfully are those who maintain their interests, activities, and level of social interaction they experienced during middle adulthood

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Memory Changes in Late Adulthood

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• Fluid intelligence declines over time• Crystallized intelligence remain steady

and in some cases improve

Memory Changes in Late Adulthood

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Alzheimer’s disease Progressive brain disorder that leads to a

gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities

Adjusting to Death

Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance

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