251Indigenous Peoples’ food systems
Chapter 12
The Igbo traditional
food system
documented in
four states
in southern Nigeria
. E L I Z A B E T H C . O K E K E , P H . D . 1. H E N R I E T T A N . E N E - O B O N G , P H . D . 1. A N T H O N I A O . U Z U E G B U N A M , P H . D . 2. A L F R E D O Z I O K O 3 , 4. S I M O N I . U M E H 5. N N A E M E K A C H U K W U O N E 6
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo252
1
Department of
Home Science,
Nutrition and Dietetics,
University of Nigeria,
Nsukka (UNN),
Nigeria
2
Social Science Unit, School
of General Studies, UNN,
Nigeria
3
Bioresources Development
and Conservation
Program, UNN,
Nigeria
4
International Centre
for Ethnomedicine and
Drug Discovery,
Nsukka, Nigeria
5
Department of
Crop Science, UNN,
Nigeria
6
Centre for Rural
Development and
Cooperatives, UNN,
Nigeria Photographic section >> XXXVI
Study AreaStates
Igboland Area
Nigeria
Data from ESRI Global GIS, 2006.Walter Hitschfield
Geographic Information Centre, McGill University Library.
Lagos
Figure 12.1
IGBO TERRITORYParticipating Communities
Ezinifite/Aku inAnambra State Ede-Oballa/Ukehe
in Enugu State
Ohiya/Ohuhu inAbia State
Ubulu-Uku/Alumuin Delta State
AbstractTraditional food systems play significant roles in maintainingthe well-being and health of Indigenous Peoples. Yet, evidenceabounds showing that the traditional food base and knowledgeof Indigenous Peoples are being eroded. This has resultedin the use of fewer species, decreased dietary diversity dueto household food insecurity and consequently poor healthstatus. A documentation of the traditional food system ofthe Igbo culture area of Nigeria included food uses, nutritionalvalue and contribution to nutrient intake, and was conductedin four randomly selected states in which the Igbo reside.Quantitative and qualitative data collection methods wereemployed. A total of 220 food species including many varietieswere documented.
The study revealed existing knowledge gaps of thecomposition of Igbo traditional foods. A number of little-used, uncommon vegetables with perceived health benefitswere identified in some areas. Key traditional staple foodsin the Igbo culture area included: yams (Dioscorea spp.),cocoyam (Colocasia/Xanthosoma spp.), cassava (Manihotspp.), maize (Zea mays), some of which were status symbols.Other food groups such as legumes, nuts, seeds, wild fruitsand vegetables were abundant. Animal foods were availablebut expensive; the availability of wild/bush animals waslimited because of deforestation and urbanization. Breastfeedingwas noted to be the traditionally accepted method of infantfeeding, while quality complementary foods posed someproblems.
Most traditional foods/diets were inadequate in meetingthe energy, calcium, riboflavin and niacin needs of thepopulation. Red palm oil contributed 70 to 85 percent ofprovitamin A intake. There were community variations inthe contribution of specific food groups to nutrient intakes.Based on the findings of this research, intervention optionsand policy considerations are suggested.
Introduction
Overall description of research area
Two communities were randomlysampled in each of four states:Ohiya/Ohuhu in Abia State,Ezinifite/Aku in Anambra State,Ubulu-Uku/Alumu in Delta Stateand Ede-Oballa/Ukehe in Enugu
State (Figure 12.1). The detailed fieldwork was con-ducted in these eight communities.
Ohiya/Ohuhu communities are located in UmuahiaLocal Government Area (LGA) in Abia State. Umuahiahad a population of about 213 630 in 1992 accordingto the Nigeria Population Census (NPC, 1992), andresidents in the study were just a few kilometres fromthe state capital, Umuahia. The vegetation is deciduousand the climate is tropical. There is a small river nearbywhere people fish and grow vegetables. Ohiya/Ohuhucommunities are distinctively known for a stem vegetablecalled achara (Pennisetum spp.) used for soup preparation,and fermented oil bean seeds presented as kola on bigoccasions. The achara stem vegetable is not commonin other communities studied.
Ezinifite/Aku communities are located in AguataLGA of Anambra State. Aguata LGA had a populationof 289 049 (NPC, 1992). Politically, Ezinifite organizesits traditional authority around the Igwe. They aresituated in the hinterland within the deciduous forests.Their location greatly influences their production,consumption and preservation of foods. Their mainfoods are yam, cassava and a few legumes, which arealso seasonal.
Ubulu-Uku/Alumu communities are located inDelta State. They are located near the river basin belt
253The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
“Ndi mba ozo na-azu na-anwu n’aguu.”
“People who depend on foreign food eventually die of hunger.” Igbo saying
of the Niger River that gave Nigeria its name. Thislocation is a typical farming region, which explainswhy the inhabitants produce and consume manyvegetables, cassava, yam, etc. Snails and bushmeat arealso consumed. The traditional political organizationsof Ubulu-Uku/Alumu communities are around theObi of the communities.
Ede-Oballa/Ukehe communities are located at theheart of Nsukka LGA in Enugu State, near the Universityof Nigeria, Nsukka, and within the deciduous forestarea. Its soils are very rich for the cultivation of legumesand vegetables. Unlike the other communities studied,Ede-Oballa/Ukehe may be one of the most fertile areasin the south-east zone of Igbo culture area. This areais rich in bushmeat and cultivated cereals. In 1992,Ede-Oballa had an estimated population of 12 447,with 5 760 males and 6 687 females (NPC, 1992).
Geographic and environmentalcharacteristics
Geographically, south-eastern Nigeria extends fromlatitudes 4° 40’ to 7° 20’ north latitude, and 6° 00’ to8° 20’ east longitude. The culture area occupies about50 000 km2 of Nigeria’s total area of 923 768 km2
(Figure 12.1). The states of the Federal Republic ofNigeria occupied by the cultural group are Abia, Anambra,Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States where they are thedominant group. In Rivers and Delta States, the Igbocultural group occupies almost a third of the states.
The land surface of the Igbo culture area is dominatedby plains which are less than 200 m above sea level,and which include some upland areas within the Udi,Plateau and Awka-Orlu regions which in some casesare greater than 520 m above sea level (particularlythe Nsukka area). The plain – which is the dominantfeature in the area (Ofomata, 1975) – may have resultedfrom alternating denudation activities. The areascovered by the plains are Anambra State within theAnambra-Niger River plain, Imo State at the foot ofAwka-Orlu upland at the axis of Orlu, Owerri, Umuahiaand Aba. This lowland joins the so-called Niger Deltaplains. Ebonyi and Abia States fall within the Cross-River plain.
The annual rainfall of the area ranges from 4 000mm in the southern area to about 1 700 mm at Nsukkain the northern area. There are considerable variationsin total annual rainfall from year to year. In the southernpart towards the coastal region, a tropical wet climateis experienced, while the rest of the region has a tropicaldry climate (Koppen, 1940). According to Monanu(1975), although both classes of climate imply anaverage annual surplus, the seasonal distribution ismore significant than the average annual rainfall total.Most soils are moist throughout the year.
The temperature pattern closely follows the rainfalldistribution. The southern portion of the area has anaverage annual temperature between 26 and 27 °C,while that in the north is between 27 and 28 °C. Thereare two major seasons in the area: rainy and dry. Therainy season lasts from April to October in the northernpart of the zone, while in the south the rains can startas early as March and last until November. The dryseason lasts up to five months. Often, the dry seasoncomes with the very dry northeast Trade Wind fromthe Sahara desert (the “Harmattan” wind). Some touristattractions in the area are Agulu Lake, Ogbunike Cave,Green Lake and Enyigba Salt Lake.
Environmental protection issues
Soil erosion – especially gully, rill and inter-rill includingriverbank flooding – remains the most importantenvironmental problem in the area. The well-knowngully erosion sites are the Agulu-Nanka in AnambraState, Orlu and Uruala areas of Imo State, Ozuitem,Abriba, Ohafia and Amucha in Abia State. Active gullyerosion is estimated to affect about 2 percent of thetotal land area of Igbo cultural group. This is highlydetrimental to the agricultural production life and landof the people.
Demographic characteristics
The population of the Igbo cultural group accordingto a 1991 national census was 25 million (NPC, 1992).The Owerri area has one of the highest populationdensities not only of Nigeria, but in the whole of Africa,
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo254
with Imo State up to Anambra State area having 460persons per km2 at that time. Education infrastructurein the states had not been fully developed and illiteracywas frequent. Only 41 percent of women aged 15 andolder was literate in 1999, compared with 58 percentof men (FOS, 2000). The goal of achieving equal accessto primary education by girls and boys had not yetbeen attained. The recent enrollment rates for bothsexes declined from 87 to 84 percent in boys and 82to 77 percent in girls (FOS/UNICEF, 2000). Educationprogresses through pre-primary, primary, secondaryand post-secondary levels, and there are also technicalschools and colleges of education.
Cultural characteristics
Generally, the Igbo people share a common basicculture centred on a common language, commoninstitutions and common religious and cosmologicalbeliefs. This type of unity within a variable culturalcomplex has full expression in the area represented bykola-nut and white chalk customs, the vigour in Igbomusic and dance movements, highly developed art ofwall decoration and delicate body paintings, potterydesigns, weaving, folklore, oral literature, “mmuo”dances and drama, traditional games and pastimessuch as wrestling, acrobatics, archery and fencing(Uchendu, 1965). Due to its patrilineal nature, thesociety has a strong preference for the male child. Theextended family system or network is predominantand functions not only as a kinship system but alsoas a social welfare and security mechanism. Culturalnorms and practices coupled with the influence ofreligion have tended to determine the place of womenin Igbo culture, with roots in tradition, culture andreligion. Discrimination against women is no longeras static or as strong as previously because the governmentrecognizes the rights of women, and women’s organizationswork to ensure that the rights of women are protected(Onwuejeogwu, 1981).
Different parts of Igbo culture area still observefood taboos. Women still deliver their babies under thecare of traditional birth attendants. Despite the campaignagainst early marriage and teenage pregnancy, these are
prevalent practices. Today women still do not participatein land issues, traditional kola nut practices, etc.
General description of the food system circumstances
Agriculture is a long-standing occupation of the peopleof the zone. Farm size is small, about 1.5 hectares.Rainfed crop production is dominant. Cropping isbased on fallow system on outlying farms while compoundand other farms close to homesteads are continuouslycropped (Ndiokwelu, 1998).
All crops are sold and a proportion is used for food.Industrial crops like cocoa, rubber and cotton are grownin minor quantities in the zone, but are cash crops.Yam (Dioscorea spp.), maize (Zea mays), cassava(Manihot spp.), cocoyam (Colocassia spp.), ediblelegumes, vegetables and rice (Oryza sativa) are grownextensively in some areas of the zone. Mixed croppingbased on root/tuber crops is universally practised. Riceis grown as a sole crop in seasonal swamps. The dominanttree crops are oil palm, citrus, banana, plantain, kola,coconut, mango and rafia palm. There are still pocketsof food gathering, hunting and fishing, but deforestationhas made it difficult to hunt regularly. Fishing is carriedout in the riverine areas, such as Delta Igbo or nearAdani and Nkpologu areas in Enugu State. Livestockfarming (local cow, goat, pig, chicken, rabbit and fish)is practised in the Igbo culture area. In rural areas localchickens brood anywhere, yet there are well-establishedpoultry farms in both rural and urban areas of the Igboculture area. Many useful fruit trees are exploited fromsemi-wild conditions. These include breadfruit (Treculiasp.), African pear (Dacroydes sp.), Irvingia sp. andPentaclethra macrophylla (oil bean seed), Dialium sp.,Parkia vitex and Chrysophyllum sp. Wild and semi-wild leaf vegetables of importance in the zone includePterocarpus sp., Pergularia sp. and Gnetum sp.
Overall health and nutrition status
Water and sanitation In 2000, household piped water coverage was less than30 percent and sanitation was less than 20 percent.
255The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
Sanitary means of excreta disposal in the communitieswas accessible by 56 percent of the population(FOS/UNICEF, 2000).
Nutritional statusNutritional status of vulnerable groups in the countrycan be used as a measure to assess the nutritional statusof the communities with whom we worked. The recentlyconcluded Food Consumption and Nutrition Survey2001–2003 found that, nationally, 42 percent of childrenwere stunted, 25 percent were underweight and 9percent were wasted (Maziya-Dixon et al., 2004). TheNational Demographic Health Survey (NPC and ORCMacro, 2004) also showed that in the south-east (Ibgoarea), 20 percent of children were stunted, 5 percentwere wasted and 8.5 percent were underweight. Thesevalues were lower than in other zones.
Micronutrient deficiencies were also of great publichealth importance in the Igbo culture area. Availabledata from the 1993 Participatory Information Collection(PIC) survey showed that the prevalence of vitamin Adeficiency was 9 percent in children and 7 percent inmothers (FGN and United Nations Children’s Fund,1993; FGN/UNICEF, 1994). Key nutritional findingsfor children aged 6–71 months in the southeast zoneshowed vitamin A dietary risk with a vitamin A deficiency(VAD) prevalence of 16 percent and serum VAD 15percent (OMNI, 1993). The Multiple Indicator ClusterSurvey (FOS/UNICEF, 2000) showed that less thana quarter of children between the ages of 6 and 59months had received a vitamin A supplement in thepreceding 24 months. The data indicated that theregions with the most serious prevalence of VAD hadreceived the least supplementation, while the proportionof children receiving vitamin A supplements was ashigh as 47 percent in the southeast.
The data also showed that vitamin A supplementationwas much more available in the urban than in the ruralareas. A 1993 study (FGN and United Nations Children’sFund, 1993) showed that the Nigerian southeast hadthe highest prevalence of iron deficiency anaemia (IDA)for mothers (61 percent), while the lowest prevalencewas in the northwest (12 percent). The prevalence ratefor anaemia among children was highest in the southeast
at 50 percent and lowest in the northeast (11 percent).Prevention is the best treatment of IDA, but it wasonly in UNICEF-assisted areas that supplementationwas occurring. In the Igbo culture area, where anaemiawas highest, only 16 percent of pregnant women receivediron and folic acid supplements in the second trimester.
Iodine and zinc deficiencies have also been high.Historically, Nigeria has had one of the highest goitrerates in Africa (NPC and UNICEF, 2001), and theprevalence rates were much higher in the southwest(29 percent) and southeast (27 percent) than in thenorth (13 percent for both the northwest and northeast).The success of the Universal Salt Iodization (USI) canbe gauged by the fact that in 1995 it was reported that97 percent of all food grade salt manufactured in Nigeriawas iodized (Egbuta and Hettiaratchy, 1996). Recently,it has been shown that 20 percent of children in Nigeriawere deficient in zinc, higher (36 percent) in the moistsavanna and lowest (6 percent) in the humid forest. Inmothers and pregnant women, zinc deficiency wasfound in 28 percent and 24 percent, respectively (Maziya-Dixon et al., 2004). Many food consumption studieshave also highlighted deficiencies of other key nutrientssuch as calcium and B vitamins because of limitedconsumption of milk and animal products (Platt, 1975).
Methodology
Approach to the people
A letter of introduction was written to the Chiefs ofthe communities to be included in the study. The Chiefsthen informed the villagers and explained the differentstages of the process. The Chiefs asked the villagers tocooperate with the researchers at every stage, startingfrom focus group discussions to personal householdvisits. Informed consent in a culturally appropriatefashion was obtained from each participant involvedin the study. No invasive procedures were performed;hence, the project posed limited risk to the individualsinvolved. No coercion was used to recruit individualsor to maintain their participation. Participants wereinformed that they could continue or discontinue theinterviews at any time. They were also allowed to refuse
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo256
participation without penalty. Community consentwas obtained through the process of creating a researchagreement. Privacy and confidentiality were upheldthrough a data-coding system. It was understood thatproject results would be be shared with the communities.
Interview sampling method
The study was carried out from June 2004 to June 2005.Households were randomly selected from each of thecommunities by balloting (a random draw) for theindividual interviews. Some households were purposivelyselected based on the presence of mothers, children and/orinfants. One hundred households were selected fromeach community, giving a total of 800 households.Respondents for the key informant interviews, focusgroup discussion, market interviews and card sorts werenot part of the 800 households interviewed. For keyinformant interviews approximately ten knowledgeablemen and women participated in each community. Thereare seven states in Nigeria where Igbo reside. Due tologistical and financial challenges, four states were randomlyselected in order to capture the variations among states.
Data collection
The forms used in data collection were from the Centrefor Indigenous People’s Nutrition and Environment(CINE) with slight modifications (www.mcgill.ca/cine/research/global).
Key informant interviews
Chiefs and Elders of the communities were the keyinformants. They provided information concerningthe structure of the village. They also guided theresearchers in choosing knowledgeable people to beinvited to participate in focus group discussions, aswell as all other information that the researchers required.
Focus group discussions
Focus groups, each comprising a small group of people– usually of the same age and gender, and who were
knowledgeable in a specific area – were assembled. TheChiefs of the communities helped the researchers gathergroups of men and women farmers and adolescents,with eight to ten individuals in each group, who werecapable of giving accurate information to the researchers.In each community, there were four groups of eight toten people each, giving a total of 32 to 40 people percommunity. In total, for all communities there were256 to 320 participants in focus groups.
A focus group guide was developed for use duringdiscussions with the groups about the following topics:foods available and affordable and eaten in the community;foods eaten and liked by season; foods eaten and likedby mothers and children; foods seldom used or currentlyunused and reasons for their lack of use, patterns offood harvest.
Market survey
A market survey was carried out in the local markets.This was aimed at identifying micronutrient-rich foodsavailable in the market along with prices, sources andseasons of availability. It was possible to identifymicronutrient-rich foods in the market that wereconsumed by children.
Individual interviews
Using the community traditional food list and theselection of the shortlist of foods likely to be goodsources of micronutrients – as developed from theprevious steps – the researchers began individualinterviews of 800 households. This activity aimed toidentify the foods that were used in the communitiesand discover the meanings and other attributes thatpeople attached to them. This guided the researchersto know whether and how these foods could be effectivelyused to improve micronutrient status.
Card sort activity
Before this exercise (Blum et al., 1997) could be carriedout, 130 cards were prepared with colour photos oftraditional Igbo foods and those sold in the market.
257The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
During the exercise, the pictures were given to individuals,especially mothers in households, to sort into groups.This exercise aimed at determining how people classifiedand grouped foods contained in the traditional foodlist and their reasons for that classification. Numberswere written behind the pictures for identification.The numbers of the foods in particular groups wererecorded and the reasons for the groupings.
Questionnaire
Questionnaires were distributed to 100 randomlyselected households (determined by balloting) in eachcommunity, thereby giving out a total of 800 householdquestionnaires. Information was collected on the levelsof taste appreciation among mothers and children onfoods that were expected by the research team to berich in micronutrients. Foods in the list of expectedmicronutrient-rich foods developed earlier were listedand the mothers and children were asked to score thembased on their level of appreciation of these foods. Foodscores ranged from one (1) (very much disliked) to five(5) (very much liked); a score of three (3) indicatedindifference toward the food. With this, it was possibleto identify taste preferences of popular foods. Eachrespondent was questioned about particular attributesof the foods on the shortlist before their introductionto infants as complementary foods. This procedurewas also used to determine how these foods were usefulto children between one and two years old. Theirattributes were recorded. Infant food history was capturedin an interview where the responding mother was askedabout breastfeeding, complementary foods, period ofsolid food introduction, quantity eaten and frequencyof intake.
Twenty-four-hour recall/weighed food intake
In each household, two 24-hour recalls were conductedfor the mother and a child within one week and aweighed food intake was conducted by the researchassistants. The intention was to understand the foodscommonly used, the source of the foods, whether they
are produced, purchased or gathered, the quantitiesconsumed and the ingredients used in preparation.
Anthropometric measurements
WeightWeight measurement was carried out on 100 childrenin each community using a beam weighing scale. Thechildren were weighed wearing only shorts or minimumclothing. All measurements were made according tostandardized procedure (Lohman, Roche and Martorell,1988).
Height For children who were older than two years old, avertical measuring rod was used to obtain height. Infantsand children less than two years of age were measuredusing a wooden length board (baby length measurer)designed by the Appropriate Health Resources andTechnologies Action Group, Ltd (WHO, 1987).
Taxonomical identification of food species
Igbo food samples not found in Nigerian Tables ofFood Composition were also analysed. Fresh samplesof plants were collected, processed, preserved, mountedand identified for documentation during the field visitsand then deposited in the internationally recognizedherbarium of the Department of Botany of the Universityof Nigeria, Nsukka.
Sampling, and laboratory analysis
Food samples were collected during field visits by theresearch team. Samples were placed in polyethylenebags and sent to the laboratory immediately for analysis.After drying and milling, the samples were analysedfor several nutrients.
The analytical procedures of the Association of theOfficial Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1995) were usedfor proximate composition, vitamin and mineralcomposition of the traditional foods. Protein fromplant and animal sources was determined by the micro-
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo258
Kjeldahl method, which determined the amount ofnitrogen in the sample. This was subsequently multipliedby a factor of 6.25. The fat content in the food sampleswas determined using the Soxhlet extraction apparatus.Moisture was determined immediately after harvestusing a Mammet drying oven, by first weighing thesample in a top loading balance, drying it in an ovenand re-weighing the dry sample. Moisture was calculatedfrom the difference in weights. Ash was prepared byigniting a weighed portion of dried sample in a mufflefurnace at 525 to 550 °C. The remaining residue (ash)was weighed. Dietary fibre was determined in the foodsample after treatment with enzymes to digest starchand protein, after which the residue sample was re-weighed. Dietary fibre was computed after subtractionof protein and ash in the residue. Carbohydrate wascalculated by subtracting the amount of moisture,protein, lipid and ash from a 100 g sample. Energy was calculated using the Atwater factors (Pearson,1976). Iron, zinc, calcium and phosphorus were measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometer(Bosch, 200A). Ascorbic acid was obtained using 2, 6-dichlorophenolindophenol method, and ß-carotenewas determined using high performance liquidchromatography (HPLC Hewlet Packard LP1600).Folic acid was determined with a microbiologicalmethod using lactobacillus casei after the samples werehydrolyzed using enzymes (Lumley and Wiggins,1981).
Data analysis
Data from the questionnaires were keyed into thecomputer after coding using the Statistical Package forthe Social Sciences (SPSS Version 12) software. Theanalysis included frequency distributions, percentages,means and correlations. Results of the weighed foodintake calculations were presented as percentages of the recommended daily allowances established by FAO/WHO/UNU (FAO/WHO/UNU, 1985;FAO/WHO, 1988). Data from anthropometricmeasurements were analysed using National Centerfor Health Statistics (NCHS) standards of reference(NCHS, 1976). Indicators of nutritional status were
used to assess levels of stunting, wasting, underweight,and normal status among the children in the communities.The defining criteria of nutritional status were as follows: • underweight: weight-for-age <-2 standard deviation
(SD) of the mean value of NCHS; • wasting: weight-for-height <-2 SD of the mean value
of NCHS;• severe wasting: weight-for-height <-3 SD of the
mean value of NCHS;• stunting: height-for-age <-2 SD of the mean value
of NCHS;• severe stunting: height-for-age <-3 SD of the mean
value of NCHS.
Results and discussion
Food list: identification and composition
The Igbo culture food list, including scientific names(where known) and their general uses, are shown inTable 12.1.
A total of 220 species and over 400 varieties offood items were documented. Of these, 174 weredocumented with their scientific names and 77 werefound in the food composition tables currently in usein Nigeria (FAO, 1968), indicating the existing knowledgegap of the composition of Nigerian foods, and that ofthe Igbo culture area in particular. There is also a gapin the knowledge of the composition of foods and dietsas they are currently consumed.
The composition of a number of little-useduncommon foods (mainly vegetables) reported to havehealth benefits were analysed. The composition of thesefoods is shown in Table 12.2. Most of these grow asweeds around the homesteads and are mainly eaten bythe Igbos in the Delta area.
It is important to note that, apart from animalmilk for infants, there was a lack of milk and milkproducts consumed in the Igbo culture area; generally,these foods are not within the food system. Milk andmilk products are generally consumed by the rich, thevulnerable and the ill, but in very small quantities bychildren, owing to their high cost.
259The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo260
Tab
le 1
2.1
Igb
o t
rad
itio
nal
fo
od
(220
spe
cies
/var
ietie
s)
Scie
nti
fic
nam
eEn
glis
h/
Loca
l nam
eSe
aso
nal
ity
Ap
pre
ciat
ion
Prep
arat
ion
com
mo
n n
ame
Scor
e 1–
4 (4
= h
ighe
st)
Rai
ny
Dry
Mo
ther
Ch
ildre
n
Cer
eals
, sta
rch
y ro
ots
an
d t
ub
ers
1C
oloc
asia
esc
ulen
taC
ocoy
amed
e of
e, n
gbow
a, a
kika
raX
X–
– Bo
iled,
dry
chi
ps
2C
oloc
asia
var
.esc
ulen
taC
ocoy
amak
onok
e X
– 3
2Bo
iled
and
poun
ded
with
cas
sava
3C
oloc
asia
spp.
(3 v
ar.)
Coc
oyam
coco
indi
a, n
kpon
gnam
bing
, oko
roko
XX
– –
Boile
d an
d po
unde
d w
ith c
assa
va
4D
iosc
orea
ala
taW
ater
yam
ji ab
ana,
ji m
vula
XX
21
Boile
d, p
ound
ed
5D
iosc
orea
bul
bife
raA
eria
l yam
adu,
adu
inu
– X
21
Boile
d
6D
iosc
orea
cay
enen
sis
Yello
w y
amji
oku
X–
32
Boile
d, r
oast
ed, p
ound
ed
7D
iosc
orea
dum
ento
rium
Thre
e le
afed
yam
ona,
uno
X–
21
Boile
d
8D
iosc
orea
pra
ehen
silis
Yam
ji ok
puru
X–
21
Boile
d
9D
iosc
orea
rot
unda
taW
hite
yam
jioch
a, ji
igw
eX
X4
4Bo
iled,
roa
sted
, frie
d, p
ound
ed
10Ip
omoe
a ba
tata
s(2
var
.)Po
tato
es, s
wee
t ji
nwa
nnu
– X
34
Boile
d, f
ried
whi
te, p
otat
oes,
yello
wis
h re
d
11M
anih
ot e
scul
enta
(2 v
ar.)
Cas
sava
(bitt
er t
ype)
akpu
nko
la in
u–
–4
4Fe
rmen
ted
for
foof
oo; b
oile
d an
d sl
iced
for
dry
chip
s
12M
usa
para
disi
aca
Plan
tain
osuk
wu,
obu
unu
– X
44
Boile
d, r
oast
ed, f
ried
and
mad
e in
to f
lour
13M
usa
sapi
entu
m(m
any
var.)
Bana
naun
ele
– X
34
Eate
n as
rip
e fr
uit
14O
ryza
gla
berr
ima
Red
rice
osik
apa
– X
11
Mill
ed, b
oile
d
15O
ryza
sat
iva
Rice
osik
apa
– X
44
Boile
d, m
illed
16Pe
nnis
etum
spp.
Mill
ets
acha
raX
– 3
1U
sed
for
soup
17X
anth
osom
a m
afaf
fa(2
var
.)C
ocoy
amed
e ok
u, e
debu
ji, a
kpah
uri
XX
42
Boile
d, r
oast
ed
18Ze
a m
ays
(3 v
ar.)
Mai
zeok
a, a
zizi
XX
33
Fres
h bo
iled,
roa
sted
, mill
ed
Leg
um
es, n
uts
an
d s
eed
s
1A
fram
omum
dan
ielli
– ol
ima
(ubu
lu –
uku
)–
– 4
2M
illed
and
use
d as
a s
pice
2A
naca
rdum
occ
iden
talis
Cas
hew
nut
nkpu
lu c
ashe
w–
X3
2To
aste
d an
d ea
ten
as s
nack
3A
rach
is h
ypog
ea(2
var
.)G
roun
dnut
opap
aX
X4
4Bo
iled,
roa
sted
. mill
ed t
o pa
ste
4C
ajan
us c
ajan
(3 v
ar.)
Pige
on p
eaag
bugb
u–
X4
4Bo
iled,
roa
sted
and
mill
ed
5C
anav
alia
ens
iform
isJa
ck b
ean
odud
u–
X1
1Ro
aste
d, m
illed
use
d as
thi
cken
er
6C
itrul
lus
vulg
aris
Mel
on s
eed
egus
i–
X4
2M
illed
for
sou
p an
d m
eat
subs
titut
e
(pat
ties.
)
7C
ocos
nuc
ifera
Coc
onut
aku
oyib
o, a
kube
kee
XX
44
Eate
n w
ith o
ther
foo
ds, m
illed
to
extr
act
milk
, slic
ed a
nd r
oast
ed a
s ca
ndie
s et
c
Co
nti
nu
ed
Tab
le 1
2.1
(con
tinue
d) Ig
bo
tra
dit
ion
al f
oo
d(2
20 s
peci
es/v
arie
ties)
Scie
nti
fic
nam
eEn
glis
h/
Loca
l nam
eSe
aso
nal
ity
Ap
pre
ciat
ion
Prep
arat
ion
com
mo
n n
ame
Scor
e 1–
4 (4
= h
ighe
st)
Rai
ny
Dry
Mo
ther
Ch
ildre
n
8C
ola
acum
inat
a (2
var
.)K
ola
nut
oji a
wus
aX
X4
1Ea
ten
as s
timul
ant
and
for
cultu
ral p
urpo
ses
9C
ola
nitid
a(2
var
.)K
ola
nut
oji i
gbo
XX
41
Eate
n as
stim
ulan
t an
d fo
r cu
ltura
l pur
pose
s
10C
ucur
bita
pep
oPu
mpk
in s
eed
mkp
uru
anyu
, ugb
ogur
uX
– 3
2M
illed
dry
and
use
d fo
r so
up
11El
aeis
gui
neen
sis
Palm
nut
aku
– X
34
Cra
cked
and
eat
en w
ith o
ther
fru
its,
roas
ted
for
oil e
xtra
ctio
n
12G
lyci
ne m
axSo
ya b
ean
– –
X–
– U
sed
as d
ried
pow
der
for
infa
nt f
eedi
ng
13Irv
ingi
a ga
bone
nsis
(2 v
ar.)
Dik
a nu
tog
bono
– X
43
Dry
, mill
ed a
nd u
sed
as s
oup
thic
kene
r
14Irv
ingi
asp
p.Bu
sh m
ango
ugiri
– X
43
Dry
, mill
ed a
nd u
sed
as s
oup
thic
kene
r
15K
erst
ingi
ella
geo
carp
aG
roun
d be
anak
idi a
ni–
X2
1Bo
iled,
roa
sted
, mill
ed
16M
ucun
asp
p.W
inge
d be
an
okw
e–
X2
1Ro
aste
d, m
illed
17Pe
ntac
leth
ra m
acro
phyl
laA
fric
an o
il be
anug
ba–
X4
3Fe
rmen
ted
slic
ed a
nd u
sed
for
vario
us d
ishe
s
18Se
sam
um in
dicu
mBe
nise
ed–
– X
32
Roas
ted,
mill
ed f
or s
oup.
19Sp
heno
styl
is s
teno
carp
aA
fric
an y
am b
ean
okpa
odu
du–
X4
3Bo
iled,
roa
sted
and
eat
en a
s sn
ack
20Te
lefe
ria s
pp.
Pum
pkin
see
dm
kpur
u ug
u–
–4
3Bo
iled
and
eate
n as
sna
ck
21Te
trac
arpi
dium
con
opho
rum
/ C
onop
hor
ukpa
X–
44
Boile
d an
d ea
ten
as s
nack
Pluk
enet
ia c
onop
hora
22Te
trap
leur
a te
trap
tera
– kp
okiri
kpo
– X
11
Boile
d
23Tr
ecul
ia a
fric
ana
(2 v
ar.)
Brea
dfru
it se
eduk
wa
– X
43
Boile
d ro
aste
d an
d ea
ten
as s
nack
.
24V
igna
sin
ensi
sC
owpe
aak
idi
– X
32
Boile
d, r
oast
ed
25V
igna
spp.
– ok
pa n
kilis
i–
X3
2Bo
iled
26V
igna
sub
terr
anea
Bam
bara
gro
undn
utok
pa ib
i–
X4
4Bo
iled,
mill
ed, r
oast
ed, &
eat
en a
s sn
ack
27C
ola
lepi
dota
Con
opho
rac
hich
a (y
ello
w in
side
, vel
vet
blac
k co
ver)
– –
34
Peel
ed a
nd e
aten
as
a fr
uit
snac
k
Fru
its
1A
belm
osch
us e
scul
enta
Lady
’s fin
ger
okw
ulu
npie
neX
– 4
4U
sed
for
soup
s
2A
naca
rdiu
m o
ccid
enta
lisC
ashe
w
mkp
uru
cash
ew
– X
44
Roas
ted
and
eate
n as
a s
nack
3A
nona
s co
mos
usPi
neap
ple
akw
uolu
– X
44
Frui
t ea
ten
whe
n rip
e
4A
nona
s m
uric
arta
Sour
sop
– –
X3
4Fr
uit
eate
n w
hen
ripe
5A
rtoc
arpu
s co
mm
unis
Brea
dfru
ituk
wa
beke
e–
– –
– –
6A
zadi
rach
ta in
dica
Nee
mdo
goya
roX
X3
1U
sed
for
mal
aria
7C
anar
ium
sch
wei
nfur
thii
Pear
ube
okpo
koX
– 4
4So
ften
in h
ot w
ater
and
pul
p ea
ten
8C
aric
a pa
paya
Paw
paw
okw
uru
ezi
– X
44
Frui
t ea
ten
whe
n rip
e
Co
nti
nu
ed
261The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo262
Tab
le 1
2.1
(con
tinue
d) Ig
bo
tra
dit
ion
al f
oo
d(2
20 s
peci
es/v
arie
ties)
Scie
nti
fic
nam
eEn
glis
h/
Loca
l nam
eSe
aso
nal
ity
Ap
pre
ciat
ion
Prep
arat
ion
com
mo
n n
ame
Scor
e 1–
4 (4
= h
ighe
st)
Rai
ny
Dry
Mo
ther
Ch
ildre
n
9C
hrys
ophy
llum
alb
idui
mBu
sh a
pple
udal
a nk
iti–
X4
4Fr
uit
eate
n w
hen
ripe
10C
itrus
aur
antif
olia
Ora
nge
orom
a nk
irisi
X–
21
–
11C
itrus
aur
antiu
mO
rang
eor
oma
X–
44
Frui
t ea
ten
whe
n rip
e
12C
ocos
nuc
ifera
Coc
onut
akuo
yibe
XX
44
Eate
n ra
w w
ith c
orn/
mai
ze
13C
ola
spp.
Kol
aoj
i ogo
doX
– 3
1C
hew
ed r
aw, m
edic
inal
14C
urcu
rbita
pep
o(2
var
.)Pu
mpk
inan
yu, u
gbog
uru
X–
44
Use
d to
coo
k ya
m o
r co
coya
m. S
ofte
n on
cool
ing.
Boi
led
and
eate
n as
sna
ck
15C
urcu
rbita
pep
o (1
var
.)Pu
mpk
innk
puru
any
uX
– 4
3Bo
iled,
mill
ed a
nd u
sed
for
soup
16D
acry
odes
edu
lis(2
var
.)Pe
arub
e Ig
boX
– 4
4So
ften
in b
oile
d w
ater
or
roas
ted
and
used
to e
at m
aize
/cor
n or
alo
ne
17D
enne
ttia
trip
etal
aPe
pper
fru
itm
mim
i–
X4
2H
ot p
eppe
r ea
ten
alon
e or
with
gar
den
eggs
18D
ialiu
m g
uine
ense
Velv
et t
amar
ind
iche
ku–
X3
4Ea
ten
raw
19El
aeis
gui
neen
sis
Palm
fru
itak
uX
X–
– M
ajor
sou
rce
of c
ooki
ng o
il
20G
arci
nia
kola
Bitt
er c
ola
aki i
luX
– 3
1–
21G
rew
ia s
pp.
Jute
pla
ntay
aum
aX
– –
– –
22H
usol
andi
a op
pros
itaM
int
alul
uisi
nmo
XX
31
Use
d fo
r up
set
stom
ach
23Ic
acem
ia s
pp.
– ur
umbi
a–
X2
4Ea
ten
as a
fru
it
24Irv
ingi
asp
p.Bu
sh m
ango
ug
iri–
X4
3Fr
uit
eate
n w
hen
ripe
25La
ndol
phia
ow
arie
nsis
Rubb
er p
lant
utu
npiw
a–
X3
4Fr
uit
eate
n w
hen
ripe
26La
ndol
phia
spp.
(4 v
ar.)
Rubb
er p
lant
akw
ari,
utu
mm
aeso
, utu
mm
aeny
i, ub
une
– X
44
Frui
t ea
ten
whe
n rip
e
27Ly
cope
rsic
um e
scul
entu
m(4
var
.)To
mat
oes
tom
atoe
s–
X4
4U
sed
for
stew
s an
d ot
her
prep
arat
ions
28M
agni
fera
indi
ca (4
var
.)M
ango
man
goro
– X
44
Frui
t ea
ten
whe
n rip
e
29M
yria
nthu
s ar
bore
usU
juju
fru
ituj
uju
XX
32
Eate
n ra
w w
hen
ripe
30Pa
chys
tela
bre
vice
psM
onke
y ap
ple
udal
a nw
aenw
e–
X3
4Fr
uit
eate
n w
hen
ripe
31Pe
rsia
Am
eric
ana
Avo
cado
pea
rub
e oy
ibo
XX
– –
Engl
ish
pear
is r
ipen
ed a
nd e
aten
alo
n
32Pi
per
umbe
llata
Sand
pep
per
njan
jaX
– 3
1D
ry le
aves
use
d fo
r so
up d
urin
g th
e dr
y
seas
on
33Ps
idiu
m g
uaja
vaG
uava
gova
X–
44
Eate
n w
hen
ripe
34Se
nna
occi
dent
alis
Nig
ero
plan
tsi
gbun
muo
X–
31
Use
d fo
r co
okin
g ya
m p
otta
ge
35So
lanu
m m
acro
carp
umG
arde
n eg
g fr
uit
anya
raX
– 4
3A
fru
it ea
ten
with
pea
nut
butt
er o
r al
one
36St
ercu
lia s
pp.
Kol
a (w
ild)
nkpu
ruam
unw
a eb
unne
– X
24
Wild
fru
it
Co
nti
nu
ed
263The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
Tab
le 1
2.1
(con
tinue
d) Ig
bo
tra
dit
ion
al f
oo
d(2
20 s
peci
es/v
arie
ties)
Scie
nti
fic
nam
eEn
glis
h/
Loca
l nam
eSe
aso
nal
ity
Ap
pre
ciat
ion
Prep
arat
ion
com
mo
n n
ame
Scor
e 1–
4 (4
= h
ighe
st)
Rai
ny
Dry
Mo
ther
Ch
ildre
n
37U
raria
cha
mae
– ok
paok
uko
XX
31
Use
d fo
r so
up, t
uber
use
d fo
r in
sect
bite
38–
– ut
abe
efi
– –
32
Wild
fru
it
Veg
etab
les
and
mu
shro
om
s
1A
cant
hace
an s
p.–
azia
X–
41
Use
d fo
r so
up, m
ixed
with
oth
er v
eget
able
s
for
mal
aria
2A
cant
hoce
ae s
p.–
ikpo
kpo
X–
41
Use
d fo
r so
up; h
as c
oolin
g ef
fect
3A
gera
tum
con
zoid
esG
oat
wee
dol
ulu
– og
wai
X–
41
Use
d fo
r so
up
4A
lcho
rnea
cor
difo
lia–
nkpo
kokw
a ag
wu
Use
d fo
r so
up
5A
mar
anth
us v
iridi
usG
reen
sin
ine
X–
44
Use
d fo
r va
riety
of
purp
oses
6A
mar
anth
ussp
p.G
reen
sin
ine
X–
42
For
food
pre
para
tion
7A
spili
a A
nwin
wa
ani
bush
mar
igol
dX
– 4
1U
sed
for
soup
, for
eat
ing
new
yam
8A
syst
asia
gan
getic
a–
ukpo
mX
– –
– –
9Bo
erha
via
diff
usa
Hog
wee
daz
uigw
eX
– 4
1U
sed
for
egus
i sou
p, r
oot
chew
ed f
or
stom
ach
pain
10Br
illan
tais
ia n
itens
– ag
bolu
– u
kuX
X4
1U
sed
for
soup
s
11Br
yoph
yllu
m p
inna
tum
Life
pla
ntm
gbid
ingb
iX
X4
1W
arm
on
the
fire,
squ
eeze
for
tre
atin
g co
ugh
12C
hrom
olae
na o
dora
taA
wol
wo
wee
dkp
ugbu
mX
X4
2U
sed
for
varie
ty o
f fo
od p
repa
ratio
ns w
ater
extr
act
with
cha
lk u
sed
for
stom
ach
pain
13C
issa
mpe
los
muc
rum
atia
– ob
uaka
enw
eX
– 4
2U
sed
for
soup
wat
er e
xtra
ct p
lus
chal
k
take
n as
a d
rink
14C
oloc
asia
esc
ulen
taC
ocoy
amak
anik
woe
de, o
gbor
a–
X2
1U
sed
for s
oup
and
vege
tabl
e ya
m p
repa
ratio
n
15C
oloc
asia
spp.
Coc
oyam
flo
ur
opi e
deX
– 3
1U
sed
for
sou
ps
16C
orch
orus
olit
oriu
sJu
tear
ira, a
hiha
ra
X–
43
Cut
and
use
d fo
r so
up a
nd y
am p
otta
ge
17C
orch
orus
spp.
Jute
kere
nken
X–
43
Cut
and
use
d fo
r so
up a
nd y
am p
otta
ge
18C
ucur
bita
pep
oPu
mpk
inug
bogu
ruX
– 4
3U
sed
for s
oup
and
vege
tabl
e ya
m p
repa
ratio
n
19C
ymbo
gon
citr
aus
Lem
on le
afac
halla
oyi
boX
– 4
1M
edic
inal
, for
sou
p, e
xtra
ct u
sed
for
mal
aria
20D
iosp
yros
mes
pilif
omis
– is
i osi
siX
– 4
1U
sed
for
impr
ovin
g ap
petit
e
21El
aeis
gui
neen
sis
Oil
palm
tre
eog
bunk
wu
– X
41
Inflo
resc
ent
grou
nd a
nd u
sed
for
soup
and
for
nurs
ing
mot
hers
for
cle
ansi
ng
22Eu
phor
biac
ae–
alic
emos
eX
– 4
1U
sed
for
soup
, use
d fo
r af
ter
birt
h pa
in
23Eu
phor
bia
hirt
aSe
eded
her
bok
poko
kwa
ogu
X–
41
Mix
ed w
ith c
halk
for
tre
atin
g dy
sent
ery
24G
netu
m a
fric
anum
Afr
ican
sal
adok
azi
X–
43
Use
d fo
r so
up a
nd f
or n
ativ
e sa
lad C
on
tin
ued
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo264
Tab
le 1
2.1
(con
tinue
d) Ig
bo
tra
dit
ion
al f
oo
d(2
20 s
peci
es/v
arie
ties)
Scie
nti
fic
nam
eEn
glis
h/
Loca
l nam
eSe
aso
nal
ity
Ap
pre
ciat
ion
Prep
arat
ion
com
mo
n n
ame
Scor
e 1–
4 (4
= h
ighe
st)
Rai
ny
Dry
Mo
ther
Ch
ildre
n
25G
rong
rone
ma
latif
ollis
Afr
ican
a sa
lad
utaz
iX
– 4
1U
sed
for
soup
or
lact
atin
g m
othe
r or
the
sic
k
26H
eins
ia c
rinita
– at
ama
X–
31
Use
d fo
r so
ups
27H
elio
trop
ium
indi
cum
– is
i – u
dele
Use
d fo
r so
ups
28H
usol
ondi
a op
posi
te–
alul
u is
i mo
Use
d fo
r so
ups
29Ja
trop
ha c
urca
s–
ulu
– oy
ibo
Use
d fo
r so
ups
30Le
ptad
enia
spp.
– ob
i ogb
ome
XX
41
Use
d fo
r so
up a
nd s
quee
zed
for
mal
aria
and
dyse
nter
y
31M
anih
ot c
rant
zC
assa
va le
afip
oto
(mpo
to)
XX
41
Stea
med
, cru
shed
and
use
d fo
r so
up
32M
erre
mia
– ag
iliez
iX
– 4
1U
sed
for
afte
rbirt
h pa
ins
33M
erre
mia
– ol
iliX
– 4
1U
sed
for
soup
, cut
leav
es u
sed
for
rice;
wat
er e
xtra
ct u
sed
for
stom
ach
ache
34M
omor
dica
cha
rant
ia–
ubaf
unch
aX
– 4
1U
sed
for
soup
, mix
ed w
ith c
lay
for
mal
aria
35M
orin
ga o
leife
ra–
okw
e –
oyib
o–
––
––
36M
yria
nthu
s ar
bore
us–
ujuj
u le
afX
X4
3U
sed
for
soup
s
37O
cim
um g
ratis
sim
umFe
ver
plan
t, T
ea b
ush
nchu
anw
u,
XX
– –
Use
d to
fla
vor
varie
ty o
f di
shes
38Pi
per
guin
eens
eBl
ack
pepp
eruz
iza
X–
42
Use
d fo
r bo
iling
met
and
fla
vorin
g so
ups
39Pi
per
umbe
llata
Sand
pep
per
njan
jaX
– 3
1D
ry le
aves
use
d fo
r so
up d
urin
g th
e dr
y
seas
on
40Pl
euro
tus
tube
rFu
ngus
osu
X–
42
Mill
ed w
ith m
elon
see
ds f
or s
oups
and
patt
ies,
eat
en a
s sn
ack
or m
eat
subs
titut
e
41Pt
eroc
arpu
s so
yaux
iiC
amw
ood
oha
– X
43
Use
d fo
r so
ups
42Po
lyga
lace
ae–
ilena
gbel
ede
X–
41
Use
d fo
r so
up t
o im
prov
e ap
petit
e
43Po
rtul
aco
oler
acea
N
tioke
wat
er le
afX
– 4
1U
sed
for
incr
easi
ng a
ppet
ite, m
ixed
with
othe
r ve
geta
bles
for
mal
aria
44Ps
ycho
tria
spp.
– an
ya –
azu
XX
43
Use
d fo
r pa
lm f
ruit
soup
45Se
nna
alat
aSe
nna
plan
tup
ulut
uX
– 4
1U
sed
for
soup
, use
d as
a la
xativ
e
46Se
nna
occi
dent
alis
Nig
ero
plan
tsi
gbon
muo
X–
31
Use
d fo
r co
okin
g ya
m p
otta
ge
47So
lanu
m m
acro
carp
umA
nara
leaf
olub
uX
– 4
3U
sed
for
vege
tabl
e ya
m a
nd a
s ga
rnis
h fo
r
nativ
e sa
lad
Co
nti
nu
ed
265The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
Tab
le 1
2.1
(con
tinue
d) Ig
bo
tra
dit
ion
al f
oo
d(2
20 s
peci
es/v
arie
ties)
Scie
nti
fic
nam
eEn
glis
h/
Loca
l nam
eSe
aso
nal
ity
Ap
pre
ciat
ion
Prep
arat
ion
com
mo
n n
ame
Scor
e 1–
4 (4
= h
ighe
st)
Rai
ny
Dry
Mo
ther
Ch
ildre
n
48Sp
atho
dea
cam
panu
lata
Flam
e tr
eeul
umill
iX
X4
1U
sed
for
soup
s
49Ta
linum
tria
ngul
are
Wat
er le
afng
bolo
di–
X4
3U
sed
with
oth
er v
eget
able
s fo
r so
ups
and
stew
s
50Te
lfeiri
a oc
cide
ntal
isFl
uted
pum
pkin
ugu
X–
43
Use
d fo
r so
ups
and
othe
r di
shes
51U
varia
cha
mae
– ok
pa o
kuko
X–
43
Use
d as
veg
etab
le a
nd in
yam
pre
para
tion.
52Ve
rben
acea
e–
ifulu
– n
kpiri
X–
41
Use
d fo
r so
up f
or p
regn
ant
and
lact
atin
g
mot
hers
, wat
er e
xtra
ct t
aken
53Ve
roni
a am
ygda
lina
bitt
er le
afol
ugbu
XX
42
Use
d fo
r so
ups,
che
wed
raw
or
was
hed
as
cure
for
mal
aria
and
man
agin
g di
abet
es
54–
Soft
mus
hroo
mer
o ak
uru
X–
42
Use
d fo
r so
ups
55–
Brig
ht m
ushr
oom
ero
awag
aaX
– 4
2U
sed
for
soup
s
56–
Mar
ked
mus
hroo
mer
o ch
ikiri
kwo
– –
42
Use
d fo
r so
ups
57–
Mus
hroo
mer
o/el
o on
yeka
met
eX
– 4
2U
sed
for
soup
s
58–
Whi
te m
ushr
oom
ero/
elo
ngba
wa
X–
42
Use
d fo
r so
ups
59–
Blue
mus
hroo
mer
o nk
puX
– 4
2U
sed
for
soup
s
60–
Toug
h m
ushr
oom
ero
nku
X–
42
Use
d fo
r so
ups
61–
Blac
k m
ushr
oom
ero
nkw
uX
– 4
2U
sed
for
soup
s
62–
Nak
ed m
ushr
oom
ero
ikpi
kpa
X–
42
Use
d fo
r so
ups
63–
Purp
le m
ushr
oom
ero
ubub
aX
– 4
2U
sed
for
soup
s
64–
Smoo
th m
ushr
oom
ero
ubak
iriX
– 4
2U
sed
for
soup
s
65–
– nk
anka
– –
– –
Use
d fo
r so
ups
66–
– os
usu
– –
– –
Use
d fo
r so
ups
Mea
t, p
ou
ltry
, eg
gs
1A
chat
ina
spp.
Snai
lej
ula,
eju
naX
– 3
4Bo
iled,
roa
sted
and
eat
en w
ith o
ther
foo
ds
2A
chat
ina
spp.
Snai
l egg
sak
wa
ejun
aX
– 2
1Bo
iled
and
eate
n
3A
nas
Duc
kob
ogw
uX
X1
1Bo
iled,
roa
sted
and
eat
en w
ith o
ther
foo
ds
4A
ntilo
carp
a am
eric
ana
Ant
elop
een
e–
X2
3Bo
iled,
roa
sted
and
eat
en w
ith o
ther
foo
ds
Co
nti
nu
ed
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo266
Tab
le 1
2.1
(con
tinue
d) Ig
bo
tra
dit
ion
al f
oo
d(2
20 s
peci
es/v
arie
ties)
Scie
nti
fic
nam
eEn
glis
h/
Loca
l nam
eSe
aso
nal
ity
Ap
pre
ciat
ion
Prep
arat
ion
com
mo
n n
ame
Scor
e 1–
4 (4
= h
ighe
st)
Rai
ny
Dry
Mo
ther
Ch
ildre
n
5Bo
ssp
p.Be
ef (c
ow)
efi,
ehi
XX
44
Boile
d, f
ried
roas
ted
or d
ried
and
used
for
a va
riety
of
purp
oses
6C
anis
cup
usBu
sh d
ognk
ita o
hia
– X
11
Boile
d, r
oast
ed a
nd e
aten
with
oth
er f
oods
7C
anis
fam
iliar
isD
ognk
itaX
X1
1Bo
iled
and
eate
n as
a d
elic
acy
8C
apra
eag
agru
sG
oat
ewu
XX
44
Boile
d, f
ried
roas
ted
or d
ried
and
used
for
a va
riety
of
purp
oses
9C
roco
dile
s m
issi
ssip
iens
isA
lliga
tor
– –
X2
2Bo
iled,
roa
sted
and
eat
en w
ith o
ther
foo
ds
10D
uick
erD
eer
mgb
ada
– X
12
Boile
d an
d ea
ten
11Er
ethi
zoat
idae
iPo
rcup
ine
ebin
tu–
X2
2Bo
iled,
roa
sted
and
eat
en w
ith o
ther
foo
ds
12G
allu
s ga
llus
Chi
cken
mea
tok
uko
XX
44
Boile
d, f
ried
roas
ted
or d
ried
and
used
for
a va
riety
of
purp
oses
13G
allu
s ga
llus
Chi
cken
egg
sak
wa
okuk
o–
X4
4Bo
iled
and
eate
n
14H
yaen
idae
Hye
naed
i–
X1
1Bo
iled,
rst
ed &
eat
en w
ith o
ther
fds
.
15M
elea
gris
gal
lopa
voTu
rkey
tolo
tolo
XX
44
Boile
d, f
ried,
roa
sted
or
drie
d an
d us
ed f
or
a va
riety
of
purp
oses
16M
elea
gris
gal
lopa
voTu
rkey
egg
sak
wa
tolo
tolo
XX
44
Boile
d or
frie
d an
d us
ed f
or a
var
iety
of
purp
ose
17M
unid
a m
elea
gris
Gui
nea
fow
log
azi
– X
44
Boile
d, f
ried
roas
ted
or d
ried
and
used
for
a va
riety
of
purp
oses
18M
unid
a m
elea
gris
Gui
nea
fow
l egg
sak
wa
– og
azi
– X
44
Boile
d an
d ea
ten
as a
sna
ck
19O
ryct
olag
us c
unic
ulus
Rabb
itew
i–
X3
2Bo
iled,
frie
d ro
aste
d or
drie
d an
d us
ed f
or
a va
riety
of
purp
oses
20Sc
iurid
aesp
p.Sq
uirr
elos
a, U
ze–
X3
2Bo
iled,
roa
sted
and
eat
en w
ith o
ther
foo
ds
21Sq
uam
ata
spp.
Snak
eag
wo
XX
11
Boile
d, r
oast
ed a
nd e
aten
with
oth
er f
oods
22Su
s sc
rofa
(2 v
ar.)
Bush
pig
, Pig
ezi o
hia,
ezi
– X
23
Boile
d, r
oast
ed a
nd e
aten
with
oth
er f
oods
23–
Cow
ski
nka
nda
XX
34
Boile
d, r
oast
ed o
r dr
ied
and
eate
n w
ith
othe
r fo
ods
24–
Wild
pig
eon
okw
a–
X2
3Bo
iled,
roa
sted
and
eat
en w
ith o
ther
foo
ds
25–
Wild
pig
eon
apa
– –
23
Boile
d an
d ea
ten
Co
nti
nu
ed
267The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
Tab
le 1
2.1
(con
tinue
d) Ig
bo
tra
dit
ion
al f
oo
d(2
20 s
peci
es/v
arie
ties)
Scie
nti
fic
nam
eEn
glis
h/
Loca
l nam
eSe
aso
nal
ity
Ap
pre
ciat
ion
Prep
arat
ion
com
mo
n n
ame
Scor
e 1–
4 (4
= h
ighe
st)
Rai
ny
Dry
Mo
ther
Ch
ildre
n
26–
Loca
l pig
eon
ndo
– –
23
Boile
d an
d ea
ten
27–
Gra
ss c
utte
rnc
hi–
– 3
4Bo
iled
and
eate
n
28–
Mon
key
Enw
e–
X4
3Bo
iled
and
eate
n
Fish
1A
stac
usC
rayf
ish
usha
– X
44
For
soup
s an
d ot
her
food
pre
para
tion
2C
hana
obs
curu
sSn
ake
– lik
e fis
hef
iX
– 4
4Fo
r so
ups
and
othe
r fo
od p
repa
ratio
n
3C
udan
onan
tas
Cra
big
beni
, nsh
iko
X–
33
For
soup
s an
d ot
her
food
pre
para
tion
4D
istic
hodu
s ro
stra
tus
Gra
ss e
ater
ejo
X–
44
For
soup
s an
d ot
her
food
pre
para
tion
5G
ymna
rchu
s ni
lotic
usTr
unk
fish
asa
X–
44
For
soup
s an
d ot
her
food
pre
para
tion
6Te
tero
tisni
lotic
us–
okpo
X–
44
For
soup
s an
d ot
her
food
pre
para
tion
7–
– bo
nga
X–
34
For
soup
s an
d ot
her
food
pre
para
tion
8–
– el
iliX
– 4
4Fo
r so
ups
and
othe
r fo
od p
repa
ratio
n
9–
– ig
bobo
elem
X–
44
For
soup
s an
d ot
her
food
pre
para
tion
10–
Cat
fis
hIs
hiX
– 4
4Fo
r so
ups
and
othe
r fo
od p
repa
ratio
n
11–
– os
hish
o m
anu
X–
23
–
12–
– pi
i (os
huas
a)–
X3
3–
Inse
cts/
larv
ae
1C
lept
era
gryl
ligae
eBe
etle
ebe
– X
24
Roas
ted
2Te
rmiti
dae
(2 v
ar.)
Term
iteak
u –
mkp
u, a
ku –
mbe
XX
33
Frie
d or
ste
amed
3La
rvae
(3 v
ar.)
Larv
aeak
pa –
nkw
u, a
kpa
– ng
wo,
nza
mX
X2
3Ro
aste
d
(pal
m, r
affia
pal
m)
4C
ricke
t–
abuz
u–
X3
4Ro
aste
d
5Lo
cust
–w
ewe,
igur
ube
– X
33
Roas
ted
Sou
p c
on
dim
ents
/ th
icke
ner
s
1A
fram
omum
dan
ielli
– ol
ima
XX
42
Use
d fo
r so
ups
and
for
lact
atin
g m
othe
rs
Afr
amom
um m
eleg
ueta
Gra
in o
f pa
radi
seos
e oj
iX
– 4
1H
ot s
pice
for
sou
p fo
r la
ctat
ing
mot
hers
2A
fzel
ia A
fric
ana
Tim
ber
plan
tak
para
ta–
X4
3A
sou
p th
icke
ner
3Br
achy
steg
ia e
uryc
oma
Blac
k tim
ber
achi
– X
43
A s
oup
thic
kene
r
Co
nti
nu
ed
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo268
Tab
le 1
2.1
(con
tinue
d) Ig
bo
tra
dit
ion
al f
oo
d(2
20 s
peci
es/v
arie
ties)
Scie
nti
fic
nam
eEn
glis
h/
Loca
l nam
eSe
aso
nal
ity
Ap
pre
ciat
ion
Prep
arat
ion
com
mo
n n
ame
Scor
e 1–
4 (4
= h
ighe
st)
Rai
ny
Dry
Mo
ther
Ch
ildre
n
4C
apsi
cum
fru
tesc
ens
Pepp
er (A
fric
ana)
ose
– ig
boX
– 3
1Fo
r pr
epar
ing
all t
radi
tiona
l dis
hes
5C
itrill
us v
ulga
risM
elon
see
dog
iri e
gusi
– –
43
A s
oup
thic
kene
r
6D
etar
ium
mac
roca
rpum
Det
ar p
lant
ofo
– –
43
Use
d as
sou
p co
ndim
ent
7H
ippo
crat
ea w
elw
isch
tiiLo
cal o
nion
obul
ungb
ede
XX
42
Bark
of r
oot s
crap
ped
and
used
to fl
avor
sou
p
8M
ucun
a fla
gelli
pes
Velv
et b
ean
ukpo
/ibaa
– X
43
A s
oup
thic
kene
r
9M
yris
tica
frag
rans
Nut
meg
eh
uru
– X
42
For
flavo
ring
soup
and
pea
nut
butt
er
10Pa
rkia
big
lobo
saA
fric
ana
mag
iog
iri u
gba
– X
31
A f
erm
ente
d pr
oduc
t us
ed f
or t
radi
tiona
l
soup
11Pi
per
guin
eens
eBl
ack
pepp
eruz
iza
X–
41
Hot
spi
ce f
or s
oup
for
lact
atin
g m
othe
rs
12Pr
osop
sis
vite
xA
fric
ana
mag
iok
pei
– X
43
Use
d fo
r fla
vour
ing
soup
s
13Ri
cinu
s co
mm
unis
Cas
tor
oil
ogiri
igbo
– X
32
A f
erm
ente
d pr
oduc
t us
ed f
or t
radi
tiona
l
soup
14V
itex
doni
ana
– us
haki
risha
– X
42
Use
d fo
r ns
ala
or w
hite
sou
p
15X
ylop
ia a
ethi
opic
a–
uda
– X
41
Hot
spi
ce f
or b
oilin
g m
eat,
for
lact
atin
g
mot
hers
to
clea
r w
omb
Oils
1A
rach
is h
ypog
eaG
roun
dnut
oil
mm
anu
opap
a–
X3
3Fo
r co
okin
g
2C
ocos
nuc
ifera
Coc
onut
mm
anu
akuo
yibo
XX
32
For
cook
ing
3El
aeis
gui
neen
sis
Palm
oil
mm
anu
akw
u–
X4
4Fo
r co
okin
g m
any
trad
ition
al d
ishe
s
4El
aeis
gui
neen
sis
Palm
ker
nel
ude
– ak
u–
X2
1Fo
r pr
epar
ing
loca
l cre
ams
and
med
icin
es
Bev
erag
es
1C
ocos
nuc
ifera
Coc
onut
wat
erm
miri
aku
oyib
o–
X4
4Fo
r dr
inki
ng, o
ral r
ehyd
ratio
n an
d an
tidot
e
2C
ocos
nuc
ifera
Coc
onut
milk
mili
ki a
kuoy
ibo
XX
42
For
food
pre
para
tions
3El
aeis
gui
neen
sis
Palm
win
em
man
yaX
– 4
4A
loca
l bev
erag
e
– N
o da
ta.
Tab
le 1
2.2
Nu
trie
nt
com
po
siti
on
of
sele
cted
Igb
o t
rad
itio
nal
fo
od
s(p
er 1
00 g
fre
sh e
dibl
e po
rtio
n)
Foo
dM
ois
ture
Ener
gy
Pro
tein
Fat
CH
OFi
bre
Ash
Vit
A (
RE)
Thia
min
Rib
ofl
avin
Nia
cin
Fola
teV
it C
Cal
ciu
mPh
osp
ho
rus
Iro
nZi
nc
gkc
alkJ
gg
gg
gμg
m
gm
gm
gμg
mg
mg
mg
mg
mg
Leg
um
es n
uts
an
d s
eed
s
Blac
k pe
pper
see
d10
.532
41
354
3.4
0.2
77.1
4.2
4.6
38.6
0.08
2.3
1.0
314
.425
4.6
533.
25.
73.
7
Cas
tor
oil s
eed
39.7
337
1 40
927
.418
.914
.30.
31.
254
.10.
141.
831.
75
2551
7.5
450.
115
.34.
2
Ehul
u se
ed15
.632
11
342
3.8
0.2
76.0
1.3
3.1
––
––
––
55.8
549
13.3
2.8
Olim
a se
ed29
.227
21
137
14.7
0.1
53.1
1.1
1.8
––
––
––
5.4
21.6
12.0
1.8
Pum
pkin
see
d60
.312
150
64.
82.
619
.62.
10.
629
.90.
371.
941.
712
1.6
170.
562
6.1
3.7
1.4
Seed
ed h
erb
56.7
140
585
3.9
0.1
30.8
4.4
4.1
440.
240
3.8
74.
716
6.8
125.
33.
42.
4
Uda
see
d42
.724
71
032
3.6
12.4
30.2
6.8
4.3
53.8
0.27
0.34
0.9
101.
8–
––
–
Veg
etab
le a
nd
mu
shro
om
Blac
k pe
pper
leaf
67.6
114
477
16.9
1.3
8.7
3.1
2.4
19.4
0.14
0.91
0.7
511
.724
5.8
13.7
6.4
1.2
Bitt
er le
af62
.115
464
414
.62.
119
.20.
41.
631
.20.
130.
560.
64
8.6
278.
322
8.4
3.4
2.2
Cam
woo
d56
.314
460
23.
50.
830
.84.
83.
829
.90.
371.
941.
712
1.6
5.3
126.
29.
00.
9
Ero
awag
a67
.413
054
34.
61.
624
.21.
60.
64.
10.
220.
424.
57
2.3
20.5
240.
911
.21.
7
Wat
er le
af (w
ild)
56.7
163
681
22.7
0.1
17.9
1.2
1.4
31.2
0.39
0.28
2.0
1338
.411
4.4
152.
91.
611
4
Wat
er le
af70
.274
309
2.4
0.8
14.2
1.0
1.8
––
––
––
8912
8.2
1.6
114
Un
com
mo
n v
eget
able
s
Agb
oluk
wu
71.1
107
447
7.9
0.4
18.0
1.7
0.9
18.9
0.28
0.36
3.0
04.
4852
9.0
188
2.0
1.3
Agi
li ez
i57
.916
066
96.
40.
333
.00.
71.
6–
––
––
–4.
115
.75.
41.
1
Alic
e m
ose
65.7
121
506
14.8
0.7
13.9
2.1
2.9
––
––
––
380.
912
7.8
11.1
1.6
Alu
luis
i36
.031
91
333
4.6
1.2
72.4
1.6
3.4
55.5
0.09
0.93
1.2
3.0
18.0
657.
633
8.3
9.5
3.3
Any
a-az
u66
.413
154
812
.81.
317
.10.
61.
825
.70.
181.
11.
56
22.9
166.
213
4.6
14.6
1.0
Aw
olow
o w
eed
47.3
192
803
9.6
0.4
37.4
2.1
3.2
69.5
0.17
0.52
2.4
630
.858
2.1
326.
25.
82.
5
Aze
i60
.811
748
94.
20.
424
.16.
34.
26.
90.
180.
361.
16
2.9
43.4
85.0
11.9
1.0
Bush
mar
igol
d52
.918
175
76.
80.
637
.00.
91.
8–
––
––
–47
3.4
235.
65.
42.
4
Flam
e tr
ee44
.021
288
68.
60.
343
.70.
82.
628
.31.
30.
542.
044
31.5
76.1
33.8
5.4
2.4
Hog
wee
d65
.912
150
68.
60.
221
.31.
62.
419
.40.
690.
861.
123
16.4
65.7
233.
82.
11.
8
Ifulu
nkp
isi
46.0
192
803
6.8
0.2
40.7
2.1
4.2
69.5
0.32
0.54
3.7
1154
.426
0.4
131.
59.
41.
1
Ilena
gbel
ede
32.9
210
878
16.4
1.4
32.9
4.6
1.4
32.7
0.36
0.94
1.2
1216
.136
7.4
405.
29.
93.
3
Co
nti
nu
ed
269The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo270
Tab
le 1
2.2
(con
tinue
d)N
utr
ien
t co
mp
osi
tio
n o
f se
lect
ed Ig
bo
tra
dit
ion
al f
oo
ds
(per
100
g f
resh
edi
ble
port
ion)
Foo
dM
ois
ture
Ener
gy
Pro
tein
Fat
CH
OFi
bre
Ash
Vit
A (
RE)
Thia
min
Rib
ofl
avin
Nia
cin
Fola
teV
it C
Cal
ciu
mPh
osp
ho
rus
Iro
nZi
nc
gkc
alkJ
gg
gg
gμg
m
gm
gm
gμg
mg
mg
mg
mg
mg
Un
com
mo
n v
eget
able
s(c
ontin
ued)
Ikpo
kpo
61.6
130
543
2.8
0.4
28.7
2.8
3.7
28.3
0.29
0.43
2.6
13.
626
3.3
84.0
2.7
2.3
Inin
e77
.810
945
615
.41.
29.
11.
51.
264
.50.
150.
0413
201.
291
.113
7.7
2.0
0.8
Isii
osis
ii59
.313
556
43.
40.
928
.34.
33.
833
.50.
220.
130.
87
1.7
32.7
252.
81.
90.
8
Isi-u
dele
44.6
211
882
4.8
0.2
47.6
2.1
1.3
4.1
0.22
0.42
4.5
72.
333
0.9
267.
110
.31.
8
Lem
on g
rass
47.7
204
853
4.3
0.4
45.8
0.4
1.4
18.2
0.21
0.9
1.2
716
.111
8.5
154.
12.
72.
7
Loca
l oni
on56
.414
259
43.
80.
630
.45.
23.
641
.80.
570.
32.
020
2.9
56.9
145.
66.
51.
2
Mgb
idi m
gbi
69.7
113
472
2.9
0.1
25.2
1.2
0.9
––
––
––
584
127.
32.
33.
7
Min
t56
.714
761
47.
30.
727
.83.
93.
6–
––
––
–48
8.7
18.8
1.0
1.5
Ngh
oton
cha
49.9
166
694
4.7
0.8
35.1
3.6
5.9
––
––
––
471.
617
1.6
7.3
1.2
Nig
ero
plan
t56
.714
661
08.
90.
526
.43.
93.
6–
––
––
–42
.714
3.5
5.0
0.8
Obi
ogb
ene
69.5
106
443
4.8
1.2
18.9
1.0
4.6
44.0
0.28
1.10
2.0
930
.332
6.5
122.
03.
21.
4
Obu
aka
enw
e38
.423
096
16.
90.
350
.01.
62.
618
.90.
280.
363.
00
4.48
42.3
431.
14.
91.
8
Ogb
unkw
u18
.624
91
041
2.1
0.1
60.0
12.3
6.9
0.0
0.12
0.0
1.0
00.
011
0.6
198.
13.
52.
0
Ogu
me
okpe
41.2
230
961
6.8
0.8
49.0
1.1
2.1
20.5
0.35
1.7
3.8
1658
.016
2.3
332.
97.
72.
7
Onu
nu g
aove
r35
.424
81
037
3.3
0.1
58.5
0.9
1.8
6.8
0.42
0.32
1.6
010
.615
2.4
389.
88.
63.
1
Onu
nu il
uoyg
bo69
.310
242
62.
40.
621
.81.
44.
530
.90.
620.
111.
60
3.6
117.
588
.22.
41.
7
Otu
lu o
gwai
42.5
206
861
6.9
0.4
43.7
3.1
3.4
35.9
1.62
0.58
1.8
022
.819
8.4
417.
15.
752.
6
Pum
pkin
69.0
125
523
22.8
2.8
2.2
1.8
1.4
––
––
7–
147.
413
0.2
0.3
0.8
Senn
a pl
ant
58.4
159
665
6.8
0.6
31.5
0.9
1.8
51.7
0.45
1.4
1.3
1518
.631
4.3
307.
36.
21.
5
Ugb
fonc
ha57
.214
058
58.
61.
123
.82.
46.
930
.40.
240.
61.
40
26.4
295.
523
1.5
4.5
1.9
Uju
ju58
.114
861
98.
31.
225
.92.
14.
416
.00.
230.
871.
38
18.4
3.3
176.
01.
60.
8
Uta
zi
56.7
172
719
18.0
4.8
14.2
3.6
2.7
20.4
0.3
0.82
0.2
0.0
0.3
258.
620
4.9
8.1
1.4
Mea
t
Can
da (s
kin)
38.4
320
1 33
828
.316
.813
.90.
02.
630
.90.
620.
111.
60
3.6
8.15
160.
05.
42.
0
Snai
l65
.712
652
710
.61.
218
.20.
04.
3–
––
––
–20
4.8
161.
65.
81.
0
–N
o da
ta.
List of key micronutrient-richtraditional foods
The list of key micronutrient traditional foods accordingto food groups and dishes is presented in Tables 12.3aand 12.3b, respectively. Traditional foods/diets of theIgbo culture area were found to be rich in ß-carotene,iron and zinc. With 95 percent of Nigerians usingiodized salt, it is expected that sufficient iodine waspresent in the diet. Unfortunately, deficiency of severalnutrients still exists. The major source of ascorbic acidin the diet was fruit. However, fruits were not eaten inconjunction with meals, but consumed between mealsas snacks (Okeke and Nnayelugo, 1989).
Patterns of harvest, storage andpreparation of key traditional foods
Key traditional foods in the Igbo culture area werefound to be yam, cassava, cocoyam, maize, legumesand vegetables. Cereals and starchy staples were also
very important foods, and dishes were named afterthem, for example, nni ji (yam fufu), nni akpu (cassavafufu), nni oka (maize/corn fufu). Their accompanyingsauces were named after the major vegetable or ingredientused, e.g. Onugbu (bitterleaf ) soup, okazi (Gnetumspp.) soup, oha (Pterocarpus soyauxili ) soup, egusi(melon), ogbono (dikannt), achi (Brachystegia eurycoma)soup, etc. Yam was viewed as a man’s crop, where aman who owns a certain number of yam barns is knownas “Diji”. Important festivals are linked to yam, suchas the New Yam Festival. During the 2005–2006research period, Igbo researchers documented thefollowing food descriptions.
Yam: The white yam, which is produced in thelargest quantity, is planted from the months of Januaryto March, while the yellow yam (D. cayenensis) canbe planted in December. In some communitiesmounds are made, while in others holes are dug inthe ground for yam planting. The planting, stakingand tending of yam are labour-intensive activities.Harvesting is done from July to October and into
271The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
Table 12.3a Key micronutrient-rich traditional foods by food groups / species
Food group/species Local name Scientific name Major micronutrient(s)
Cereals
Yellow maize Oka Zea mays ß-carotene
Starchy roots/tubers
Sweet potatoes Ji nwannu Ipomaea batatas Iron, ß-carotene
Three leaf yam Ona Dioscorea dumentorum Iodine, ß-carotene
Yellow yam Ji Oku/Okwu Dioscorea cayenensis ß-carotene, iodine, iron
Starchy fruits
Banana Unele, Ogede Musa sapientum Zinc, folate, iron, ß-carotene
Plantain nba/jioko Obughunu Musa paradisiaca Zinc, folate, iron
African bread fruit Ukwa Treculia africana Iron, zinc
Legumes/nuts & seeds All legumes/nuts All legumes/nuts Iron, zinc, copper
Cashew Mkpuru/Mkpulu cashew Anacardium occidentalis Iron, zinc
All fruits Mkpulu Osisi All fruits Iron, zinc, carotenoids, copper,
selenium, vitamin C, vitamin E
Palm fruit Aku Elaeis guineensis ß-carotene
All vegetables Akwukwo nni All vegetables Iron, zinc, carotenes
Mushroom Ero/elo Not yet properly identified Iron, copper, zinc
All animal foods See Table 12.1 See Table 12.1 Iron, zinc, vitamin A
November for the yellow yam. Harvesting is alsolabour intensive and care is taken not to bruise orbreak the yam tubers. Yams are prepared in a varietyof ways. They can be boiled, baked, roasted and eatenwith fresh palm oil (Ji nmanu), or fried and eatenwith a sauce. Roasted yam with palm oil is popularin most urban centres.
Yam can be incorporated into other dishes, e.g.legume pottages, ayaraya ji and yam pottage. The mostpopular form of preparation of yam is the pounded
yam, prepared by peeling, slicing, boiling and poundingthe yam with mortar and pestle into smooth, slightlyelastic dough. The white or yellow yam is usually betterthan the water yam for this purpose. The poundedyam is consumed with traditional soups/sauces. Aspecial delicacy is pounded yam and nsala soup (whitesoup or pepper soup). This is used for feeding lactatingwomen in the first few days after birth. The hot spicesin the nsala soup are believed to help purify and cleansethe system of the nursing mother.
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo272
Table 12.3b Key micronutrient-rich traditional food dishes
Traditional soups/dishes Description/composition/major ingredients Major micronutrients
(Ogbono, egusi, bitter leaf Vegetables, meat/fish, crayfish, pepper, palm-oil, condiments Iron, ß-carotene, zinc
vegetable soups /sauces) (melon/dikanut/cocoyam/other soup thickeners)
Banga or palm fruit soup
Ayaraya oka Corn mixed with pigeon pea, vegetable, oil bean, palm oil, pepper Vitamin A, iron, zinc
Achicha Dried cocoyam mixed with pigeon pea, oil bean, palm oil, Iron, zinc, ß-carotene, vitamin C
green leafy vegetables
Moimoi Wet or dry milled dehulled cowpea paste mixed with palm oil, pepper, onion, Iron, zinc, ß-carotene, folate, copper
crayfish, pieces of meat, fish or egg (optional), steamed into a pudding
Akara Wet or dry milled dehulled cowpea paste, whipped and mixed with Iron, zinc
pepper, onion, salt and deep fried in balls in vegetable oil
Yam pottage Yam cubes boiled with palm oil crayfish, fish (optional), green leafy vegetables Iron, ß-carotene
Ukwa (Afuoka) Breadfruit mixed with corn, pieces of fish or meat, bitterleaf, salt, pepper Iron, zinc, ß-carotene
Utipiri Corn mixed with Ugboguru (pumpkin leaf), oil bean, and pepper, salt Iron, zinc, ß-carotene
Bean pottage Cowpea or other legumes mixed with palm oil, salt, pepper, onion, Iron, zinc, ß-carotene
Okpa Bambara ground nut flour paste mixed with palm oil, pepper, salt and Protein, iron, niacin, magnesium,
spices (optional) ß-carotene
Okpa fufu and soup Okpa fufu is a gelatinized dough made from bambara flour and eaten with Iron, zinc ß-carotene
traditional soups/sauces
Ukpo-ogede Dried plantain flour, over ripped plantain paste, palm oil, pepper, salt ß-carotene, iron, zinc
Igbangwu-Oka Parboiled dried maize wet milled and mixed with palm oil, pepper, onion, ß-carotene, iron, zinc
crayfish, fermented oil bean, green leafy vegetable and steamed into
a pudding. Termites are added in some areas
Native/local Salads Dried cassava slices mixed with palm oil, leaf green vegetable (Solanum spp. or ß-carotene, iron, vitamin C, zinc
Gnetum spp.). Dried cassava slices mixed with fermented oil bean seed slices
with or without leafy green vegetable, palm oil, salt, pepper. Raw Gnetum spp.
Slices mixed with palm oil. Note: In all the above. varieties of salad, the palm oil
maybe mixed with “trona” (akanwu, in Igbo) or potash to produce a yellow
paste ncha (soap) Also crayfish, pieces of cow skin (kpomo/kanda) are added
Otunke or alibo agworoagwo Cracked dry cassava/yam chips, soaked, steamed and mixed with Ugboguru ß-carotene, iron, zinc, copper,
(pumpkin leaf), okro, arira (Corchorus olitorious), ukpaka (fermerted oil bean vitamin C, iodine
slices), palm oil, salt, and pepper
Agbalatui Osu (Pleurotus spp.) + melon (egusi), pepper, and salt molded into patties Iron, zinc, copper
which are cooked and eaten as meat substitutes or snacks
The water yam (D. alata) is less sugary and isfrequently used by diabetics. It can also be grated,mixed with salt, pepper and onion and fried in ballsin vegetable oil in some communities. Yam flour isalso prepared and used to make yam fufu (morepopular in the Yoruba culture than the Igbo). As yamis mainly consumed fresh, it is stored in the freshform in barns. It is a highly perishable food crop and,therefore, is stored in a cool and airy environment.Constant inspection of the yams in the barn andstorage places in the homes is necessary to discardspoiled yams. It is important to note that in the ruralareas yam peels are sun dried alongside the fleshytuber and milled for consumption, thereby yieldinga high dietary fibre product.
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz): Its importanceas a high-energy food (providing over 70 percent ofdaily energy) can be deduced from the various namesgiven to it, e.g. “Man power”, “Number one” and “Sixto Six”. It is planted between March and June. Harvestingoccurs approximately 6–18 months after plantingdepending on the type. Only the bitter variety ofcassava is popular in the Igbo culture area. Its cultivationand harvest is less tasking than that of yam. Cassavahas several advantages as a food crop. According toIhekoronye and Ngoddy (1985) cassava provides highreturns in calorie value per effort and resources invested.It grows relatively well in poor soils and under dryconditions and is, therefore, highly valued as a safeguardagainst the risk of failure of other staples food crops.On the other hand, cassava tubers are extremelyperishable since their edible roots are not organs ofdormancy. It also contains two cyanogenic glycosides:linamarin and lotaustralin, which hydrolyse in thepresence of the enzyme linamarase to release hydrogencyanide. The prussic acid concentration is highest inthe bitter varieties of cassava, which is found in theIgbo culture area (FAO, 1989).
One of the ways of making cassava for humanconsumption is through fermentation. In the Igboculture area, cassava is soaked in water in a containeror swamps by the river for a minimum of three or fourdays to allow it to ferment. The fermented tuber isthen washed through a sieve to remove the unfermented
midrib and fibres. The slurry is put in a bag and thewater is expressed. The resulting meal is referred to asakpu (Ihekeronye and Ngoddy, 1985). This is cookedin water for about 10–15 minutes to gelatinize, poundedin a mortar, moulded into balls and dropped into thecooking water for another 10–20 minutes. It is thenpounded alone or in combination with yam or cocoyam,as is done in some Igbo communities. The resultingdough is eaten with soup/sauce. It can also be processedinto gari, another popular form. The cassava is peeledand grated, and the grated mash is put in a bag andallowed to ferment for at least 24 hours, during whichtime the water is removed by hydraulic press. Thenthe hydraulic-pressed cassava is dried and then siftedto remove fibre and other unwanted materials. Thesifted meal is toasted in a large, hot frying pan andcooled before storing.
A popular product of cassava is known as abacha(tapioca), which can be dry or in wet slices. The wetslices are eaten with coconut or groundnuts as a snackor incorporated into bean dishes. The dry slices areused to prepare African salad (abacha ncha ). Abachais prepared by peeling and slicing the cassava tuber andcooking it in boiling water. Cooked cassava are slicedinto desirable sizes and allowed to remain in water foranother 12–24 hours before consumption. During thesoaking, the water is changed at least twice. Wet slicesremain wet, while some slices are dried in the sun toproduce dry slices.
Cassava is also processed into raw chips simply bypeeling, cutting, soaking for 24 hours, washing andthen sun drying. Dry cassava chips are milled intoflour (alibo ) and used to make fufu. Fufu is made bypouring the flour into hot water and stirring itcontinuously until gelatinized elastic dough is obtained.This again is eaten with traditional soups/sauces. Thedried cassava chips could also be cracked and used inpreparing a traditional dish referred to as otunke oralibo agworoagwo. Cassava is highly perishable. A dayor two after they are harvested, the tubers begin todeteriorate rapidly. They develop vascular discolouration,which make the roots unpalatable and unsuitable forsubsequent processing. Cassava can be stored asfermented cassava meal in containers, as gari, dried
273The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
cassava chips and flour. In these forms, cassava can bepreserved for a long time.
Cocoyam: Two major species of cocoyam, Colocasiaspp. and Xanthosama spp., were documented. Mainlywomen in Igbo culture area produce this crop. Cocoyamis planted from March to June and harvested inNovember/December. Indian cocoyam (or cocoindia)a Colocasia spp. is planted in March and can be harvestedas early as July/August/September. Cocoyam growswell in wet, damp or shady places.
The Xanthosama spp. can be boiled or roasted likeyams. The Colosacia spp. requires prolonged heating(6–12 hours) before they can be consumed. This isbecause of their high level of raphides (slender, sharpirritant crystals formed from calcium oxalate monohydrate).They are cooked and pounded into fufu and consumedwith traditional soups/sauces. Some (ede-ofe ) are usedas thickening agents in a popular traditional soup/sauceofe onughu (bitter-leaf soup). This is a popular andimportant soup/sauce among the Igbos and is servedat very important functions. Cocoyams are also preparedin the form of dried chips (Abacha). Abacha is producedby prolonged cooking, slicing and sun drying of thefood crop. It is a very popular food in Enugu State.Cocoyams are mainly stored as dried chips. These areplaced in cool, dry places or over the fireplace and takenwhen needed, especially during the lean planting season.
Maize (Zea mays): The major cereal of the Igboculture area is maize/corn. This is a highly valuablefood that provides a substantial amount of the totalenergy of the Igbo people. Three types of corn arecommon in this area: white, yellow and variegated.Corn is planted at the beginning of the rains inMarch/April and harvested between June and August.It is a reliable source of food during seasons of foodscarcity, particularly in the months of March and June.Corn is either boiled or roasted in the fresh form andeaten with coconut or local pears (Dacryodes edulis).Additionally, it can be ground to prepare Ukpo okaor Igbangwu (see Table 12.1). These are becomingpopular snack foods in the Igbo culture area and othersparts of Nigeria.
Dry maize kernels can also be ground into mealand used to prepare gelatinized dough known as nni/nri
oka, which is eaten with traditional soups/sauces. Drymaize can also be processed into maize gruel (pap),popularly known as akamu, which is a traditionalweaning food and is also consumed by all populationsub-groups. It is prepared by soaking dry maize/cornin water for at least 48 hours. The soaked grain ismilled and washed through a sieve. The slurry obtainedis put in a cloth bag and the water is pressed out. Theresulting paste is akamu. The gruel is made by pouringboiling water into the slurry of the akamu. Sugar,milk, soybean flour and crayfish can be added to enrichit. Maize gruel is high in moisture and of low nutrientdensity. There are other recipes based on maize, forexample, akara oka, akara and agidi. Maize cobs arenormally stored over the fireplace. There, the heat andsmoke from the fire keep the moisture content lowand repel insects. Maize grains are also sun dried priorto storage. They can be stored in plastic containersafter drying or put in hermetically sealed clay potswith pepper added.
Legumes: Although there are numerous indigenouslegumes to the Igbo culture area, the black-eyed cowpea(Vigna unguiculata) is most commonly consumed, aswell as pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), akidi (Vigna spp.),African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) and groundbean(Kertingiella geocarpa) akidi ani. However, the bambaragroundnut has now assumed a prominent place in Igboareas and in many large cities. The bambara groundnutseed is milled and sieved several times to produced theflour, which can be used in several ways. It is mainlyused in preparing a form of pudding okpa, a popularmeal and snack. It can be eaten with maize gruel, soakedgarri or alone. Some people cut cooked okpa into smallpieces and mix it with steamed vegetables and pepperand onion sauce. Bambara groundnut flour can beused to produce a gelatinized cooked dough or fufu.This, like cassava/yam fufu, is eaten with traditionalsoups/sauces. The flour can be incorporated into otherdishes to enrich them or used in making sauce foreating yam or cocoyam. Bambara groundnut in thefresh form can be boiled and eaten alone as a snack. Itcan also be roasted and eaten as snack. Some of thepopular dishes prepared with pigeon pea are ayarayaoka (pigeon pea and corn); ayarayaji (pigeon pea and
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo274
yam) and abacha (pigeon pea and dried cocoyam chips)(Table 12.4). Fermented oil bean seeds are added tothese as a supplement. Occasionally, the seeds areroasted, ground and sieved for making sauces and soupsthat go with yam or cassava fufu.
Akidi is a traditional cowpea variety. It is consumedas fresh pods and as dried seeds. Others are olaludiand apama. The major characteristics of these are theirsmall seed sizes and shiny seed coats. Fresh akidi isused as a vegetable in the preparation of many dishes,e.g. yam pottage, ayaraya, and achicha. The dried onesare used as grains to replace pigeon pea in some of thesetraditional dishes. It can also be boiled and added totapioca salad. Akidi is planted in April/May and harvestedin June–July.
African yam bean is inter-planted with yam inApril–June and supported on the same stake used foryams. It has a long growing season, with seeds maturingin 150 to 300 days (Ezueh, 1984). In most communities,it is boiled and eaten with other staples (yam, plantain,cassava, corn/maize, etc.). It is also roasted and eatenwith palm kernel. This is a popular snack food soldparticularly in the Enugu/Nsukka area. The African yambean is usually cooked overnight because it is hard tocook. Hence, traditionally, akanwu (sodium sesqui-carbonate, Na2 CO3 NaHCO3 2H2O) is used to reducecooking time, a practice that needs to be discouragedsince it destroys B vitamins (Edijala, 1980), which havebeen found to be lacking in the diets of the people(Nnanyelugo et al., 1984). The African yam bean isstored in its pod over the fireplace. The seeds can alsobe put in sacks, bags, calabashes and basins.
Akidi ani (groundbean) is an important under-explored legume. It develops pods under the groundsimilar to groundnuts (Arachis hypogea) and bambaragroundnuts (Vigna subterranean). It is however, confinedto a few communities. It is planted in July/August andharvested in November/December. Ground bean canbe boiled or roasted and eaten alone or in combinationwith staples such as plantain, yam, cocoyam, rice, sweetpotato, cassava and maize.
Oil bean seed (Pentaclethra macrophylla): Thisis an important food crop in the Igbo culture area.As a delicacy, it is consumed in the fermented form
and is known as ugba or ukpaka. This fermentedproduct is obtained by boiling the oil bean seedovernight, after which it is dehulled by hand and thenthe cotyledon is sliced. The sliced cotyledons areboiled again for about 2 hours, washed in water andput in a covered basket and left in a warm environmentto ferment for at least 12 hours. Fermentation can beprolonged depending on the temperature of theenvironment. The fermented slices can be eaten aloneor in combination with other foods as described earlier.The delicacy prepared with this food is ugba agworoagwu– ugba mixed with palm oil, pepper, salt and akanwu(trona). Variations to the food were noted as crayfish,fish, cowskin (kpomo or canda), cassava slices, solanumleaf or various fruits being added. Ugba is used forseveral social activities such as marriage, namingceremonies and union meetings. They are sold andserved in hotels and other eating houses popularlyknown as “Ugba joints”. It is a tree plant and theseeds are picked or harvested between August andNovember. The seeds are stored in containers untilready for use.
Vegetables abound in the Igbo culture area. However,there are community peculiarities in terms of the typesand form in which vegetables are consumed. For example,okazi (Gnetum africanum) and achara (Pennisetumspp.) are typical of Igbos from Imo and Abia States,while bitterleaf (Vernonia amygdalina) is most popularin Anambra State. The Igbos in the Enugu and DeltaStates sprinkle vegetables on their food. A lot of uncommonvegetables were found to be consumed in the Deltaarea. Some of them grow as weeds around the homesteadsand farmlands. It is also interesting to note that mostof these uncommon vegetables are used in small quantitiesand ground before use in preparing soup. Most of themare used because of their medicinal value.
Most vegetables are cooked before eating eitherby steaming or cooking in soups/sauces, with thetendency of overcooking them. Only a few traditionalvegetables are eaten raw. They include anara leaf(Solanum spp.) and okazi (Gnetum africanum), andare used in making native salads. The bitter leaf ischewed raw after the leaves have been washed severaltimes to reduce its bitter taste. Bitter leaf chewing is
275The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
popular with the Igbos from Anambra State. Apartfrom the bitter leaf, all other vegetables can be useddirectly without any form of processing. Vegetablesare most often consumed fresh, while some are preservedby sun or shade drying. Dried vegetables are usedwhen they are not in season. Before use, they are soakedand washed in water. Dried vegetables are stored inbags or containers until ready for use.
Preferences of family members(mothers and children) described in 2005–2006
Starchy roots, tubers and fruits Yams are especially popular with children when boiledand eaten with palm oil, cooked as pottage withoutgreens or incorporated into bean pottage. Adults, onthe other hand, like yam especially as pounded yameaten with soups/sauces. Children also enjoy sweetpotato because of the sweet taste, while adults believe
it can cause worms (worm infestation). The three-leaf yam (ona) is liked and well known by adults,whereas children report not liking them and are notfamiliar with them. Cassava and their products areenjoyed and eaten by all members of the family.However, there are preferences in the soups/saucesused: ripe plantain, especially in the fried or boiledform, is preferred by children, while adults prefergreen plantain either roasted or used in preparingplantain pottage.
Cereal Cereals and cereal products have a special place inchildren’s food preferences. They are fond of pap, agidi,igbangwu and rice in any form. Adults eat these foodsbut regard rice as “bird food”.
Legumes Legume dishes were reported to be liked by everyonein the family. However, children highly enjoy okpa,
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo276
Table 12.4 Nutrient composition of selected Igbo traditional recipes (mean ± SD per 100 g edible portion)*
Food Moisture Energy Ash Fat Proteing kcal kJ g g g
African Bread fruit 47.36 ± 0.2 242 1 015 3.6 ± 0.6 10.1 ± 0.2 11.9 ± 0.2
Cassava 53.3 ± 0.1 179 750 1.4 ± 0.0 0.01 ± 0.0 0.6 ± 0.0
Cassava strips & black cowpea 50.14 ± 0.3 212 891 1.8 ± 0.6 4.5 ± 0.0 3.4 ± 0.1
Plain bambara pudding 57.75 ± 0.4 165 692 1.7 ± 0.6 0.9 ± 0.0 14.6 ± 0.02
Dried cocoyam & pigeon pea 49.72 ± 0.2 211 885 2.0 ± 0.1 3.98 ± 0.01 2.78 ± 0.02
Dried cocoyam pudding 51.83 ± 0.45 182 763 2.2 ± 0.0 0.00 0.57 ± 0.05
Melon & grain millets & okazi 64.81 ± 0.25 153 641 3.7 ± 0.10 5.98 ± 0.05 5.14 ± 0.01
Steamed maize pudding with vegetables 47.25 ± 0.50 214 896 4.8 ± 0.06 5.8 ± 0.06 6.49 ± 0.05
Dika nut 65.22 ± 0.22 151 635 0.4 ± 0.07 3.1 ± 0.05 3.34 ± 0.04
Banga soup 76.04 ± 0.4 112 469 1.7 ± 0.01 5.0 ± 0.01 4.03 ± 0.02
White soup 56.25 ± 0.1 182 764 5.25 ± 0.06 7.00 ± 0.06 5.38 ± 0.03
Bambara pudding 44.28 ± 0.2 246 1 033 3.84 ± 0.04 8.91 ± 0.03 10.36 ± 0.04
African yam bean & fermented oil bean seed pottage 55.42 ± 0.4 170 714 3.12 ± 0.05 2.05 ± 0.02 6.55 ± 0.26
Cowpea & fermented oil bean seed pottage 52.6 ± 1.18 207 867 1.71 ± 0.1 5.0 ± 0.02 7.92 ± 0.3
Dried cassava fufu 54.85 ± 0.06 177 741 0.68 ± 0.25 0.05 ± 0.01 0.27 ± 0.01
African yam bean & wet cassava & garden egg leaves 55.37 ± 0.20 168 707 3.35 ± 0.07 1.32 ± 0.05 3.48 ± 0.05
Unripe and ripe plantain pudding 54.38 ± 0.00 192 804 1.60 ± 0.00 3.42 ± 0.12 2.05 ± 0.12
* Analyses in duplicate or triplicate.
moi moi and akara, especially since they are boughtas snack foods.
Vegetables Children referred to in this study generally did not likevegetables and would avoid dishes with a lot of themincluded. There are some vegetables that children preferbecause of certain qualities they possess. For example,children like arira (Corchorus olitorius) kerenkere (Corchorusspp.), ujuju (Myrianthus arboreus) and anyazu (Psychotriaspp.), where they are available, because of their viscousor drawing consistency and sweet taste. They also do notlike vegetables with a bitter taste (e.g. bitter leaf) or strongsmell (nchuanwu, Ocimum gratissimum). Mothers, onthe other hand, highly enjoy vegetables in any form.
Fruits Children express a great liking for a variety of fruits,unlike the adults. Traditional fruits particularly likedby children are utu (Landolphia owariensis), udala
(Chrysophyllum albidum), icheku (velvet tamarind,Dialium guinense) ube or pears (Dacryodes edulis) andube okpoko (Canarium schweinfurthii). They do notlike bush mango (Irvingia spp.) because of its verystrong smell, while mothers and other adults reallyenjoy this fruit.
Soups/sauces Children like most soups/sauces except egusi (melon) andbitterleaf soups. Egusi and bitterleaf soups are very importantsoups/sauces in the Igbo culture area. They are used forentertaining guests at different functions. Palm fruit pulpsoup, popularly known as banga soup or ofe akwu, is aspecial soup of the Anambra and Delta Igbos, but isgradually becoming very popular everywhere. It can bemade using a variety of staples and is enjoyed by all.
Animal foods Meat, fish and poultry are enjoyed by children, althoughthese are given to them in small quantities. Children
277The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
Fibre CHO Iron Copper Zinc Phosphorous Vit A Vit C Folic acidg g mg μg μg mg RE μg mg μg
1.2 ± 0.5 25.99 ± 0.0 0.6 ± 0.01 2.3 ± 0.03 0.3 ± 0.03 14.2 ± 0.2 7.7 ± 0.02 14.5 ± 0.06 7.1 ± 0.02
0.6 ± 0.2 44.21 ± 0.1 0.6 ± 0.0 3.4 ± 0.0 0.2 ± 0.01 12.9 ± 0.1 3.9 ± 0.02 4.6 ± 0.01 3.1 ± 0.04
0.5 ± 0.0 39.73 ± 0.1 0.6 ± 0.2 3.1 ± 0.01 0.3 ± 0.01 14.0 ± 0.06 11.2 ± 0.01 21.4 ± 0.01 11.2 ± 0.02
0.3 ± 0.1 24.7 ± 0.03 0.3 ± 0.2 3.4 ± 0.05 0.25 ± 0.0 13.8 ± 0.0 1.93 ± 0.01 8.0 ± 0.01 3.06 ± 0.01
0.35 ± 0.0 41.13 ± 0.01 0.3 ± 0.01 3.4 ± 0.01 0.2 ± 0.02 13.6 ± 0.47 5.42 ± 0.03 8.96 ± 0.05 5.45 ± 0.00
0.43 ± 0.05 45.0 ± 0.02 0.44 ± 0.1 3.38 ± 0.03 0.32 ± 0.0 15.3 ± 0.02 11.42 ± 0.02 2.6 ± 0.01 2.76 ± 0.10
0.7 ± 0.32 19.68 ± 0.02 0.6 ± 0.01 3.1 ± 0.01 0.28 ± 0.01 15.89 ± 0.78 9.56 ± 0.01 25.2 ± 0.01 12.14 ± 0.0
1.69 ± 0.03 34.02 ± 0.03 0.32 ± 0.01 3.25 ± 0.03 0.25 ± 0.02 14.9 ± 0.26 9.27 ± 0.02 14.2 ± 0.12 5.04 ± 0.04
0.35 ± 0.01 27.64 ± 0.03 0.4 ± 0.01 4.0 ± 0.05 0.31 ± 0.00 14.2 ± 0.01 5.86 ± 0.02 29.3 ± 0.06 18.67 ± 0.01
0.48 ± 0.00 12.77 ± 0.02 0.44 ± 0.00 3.4 ± 0.05 0.35 ± 0.05 14.5 ± 0.33 8.72 ± 0.03 18.92 ± 0.01 6.53 ± 0.01
1.58 ± 0.26 24.54 ± 0.03 0.45 ± 0.01 4.06 ± 0.05 0.23 ± 0.02 15.7 ± 0.06 6.25 ± 0.05 16.32 ± 0.2 7.64 ± 0.01
1.28 ± 0.26 31.33 ± 0.01 0.77 ± 0.03 3.1 ± 0.28 0.15 ± 0.03 16.5 ± 0.18 8.18 ± 0.01 17.2 ± 0.40 6.4 ± 0.10
1.34 ± 0.17 31.52 ± 0.04 0.74 ± 0.00 3.5 ± 0.43 0.1 ± 0.03 13.8 ± 0.06 5.79 ± 0.00 14.0 ± 0.06 7.33 ± 0.02
0.14 ± 0.00 32.63 ± 0.11 0.23 ± 0.00 3.1 ± 0.10 0.20 ± 0.01 13.6 ± 0.00 7.79 ± 0.20 18.4 ± 0.01 6.97 ± 0.02
0.12 ± 0.06 44.01 ± 0.01 0.45 ± 0.01 3.1 ± 0.01 0.16 ± 0.02 13.2 ± 0.35 3.94 ± 0.02 5.02 ± 0.10 6.99 ± 0.01
0.71 ± 0.01 35.77 ± 0.01 0.56 ± 0.01 3.5 ± 0.03 0.15 ± 0.01 16.9 ± 0.31 6.16 ± 0.05 14.4 ± 0.05 6.06 ± 0.01
0.26 ± 0.05 38.29 ± 0.03 0.3 ± 0.00 3.1 ± 0.00 0.14 ± 0.00 14.0 ± 0.06 6.40 ± 0.00 9.13 ± 0.01 5.87 ± 0.02
are given milk and milk products mostly when theyare very young. They also like other traditional animalfoods like beetle, cricket, termites, snails, rabbit, squirrellarvae and snail eggs. Mothers also like animal foods.Nchi is one of the cherished bush meats used in thelocal cuisine. In some Igbo communities, it is forbiddenfor pregnant women because it is said to prolong labour.The termite is a cheap source of protein, which ischerished by childen and some adults. It is usuallyroasted and eaten alone or steamed and included insome traditional food preparations, such as ikpo-oka(corn pudding).
In the past, children and mothers were denied theseanimal foods. However, with increasing awareness ofthe nutritional needs of these vulnerable groups, suchtaboos are followed less strictly. Their limited consumptionnow could be attributed to availability and cost. Thereare also certain animals that are still prohibited for spiritualor cultural reasons, e.g. hyena, snakes, snails, etc.
Foods readily available, as described in the research period
The most readily available traditional staple in the Igboculture area is cassava (Manihot esculenta). It is a staplethat is found in one processed form or another in everyhousehold, irrespective of social status and season ofthe year. Other staples that are available year-round
may not be seen in some households because of theirhigh cost, e.g. yam and plantain. Among the cereals,maize appears to be the most readily available, sincemost households produce maize. Thus, it can be foundin wet or dried form depending on the season.
The most readily available legume is the cowpea(Vigna unguiculala). This can be found in everycommunity and local market in larger quantities thanthe indigenous ones. The production of traditionallegumes is low.
Fruits and vegetables abound in the Igbo culturearea but are highly seasonal. However, vegetables suchas bitter leaf, Amaranthus (green), okazi (Gnetum spp.)and pumpkin (ugu ) are available year-round, but areexpensive during the dry season. Among the vegetablesused less frequently obiogbome (Peptadentia spp.),anya-azu (Psychotria spp.), kpugbum (Chromolaenaodorata), ujuju (Myrianthus arboreus), ulumiri(Spathodea campanulata), Olili (Brillantaisia merreniaspp.) aluluisimmo (Husolandia opprosita) andokpanwaokuko (Aduraria chamae) are said to be availablethroughout the year. These are mainly obtained fromthe wild except Merremia spp., Spathodea campanulataand Psychoria, which are found in home gardens.Bananas and citrus fruits, particularly oranges, are themost readily available fruits.
Most nuts and seeds are available throughoutthe year, since they are usually dried and preserved.
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo278
Table 12.5 Cost of meeting iron requirements with some traditional Igbo recipes
Food Servinga portion (g) mgFe/100ga Cost/100gb (N==) Cost of meeting the iron
Children Women requirement for children (8mg) (N==)
Bean Pottage 275 600 2.27 15.0 52.86
MoiMoi 200 350 2.70 5.0 14.81
Okpa 225 450 2.27 10.0 35.24
Akara 100 150 2.85 10.0 28.07
Igbangwu 250 375 2.48 5.0 16.13
Cassava and Egusi soup 300 600 2.04 20.0 78.43
Cassava and Bitterleaf 325 625 1.90 20.0 84.20
Cassava and Okro soup 325 650 1.69 20.0 94.67
a Madukwe and Ene-Obong, 2006.b Okeke and Eze, 2006.US$ 1 ≈ N==127 (Oct, 2007).
The oil bean seed, groundnuts, melon and dikanutare always available, although they may be expensiveat times.
The animal foods, meat, fish, poultry and eggs areavailable but very expensive. Bush animals are notreadily available because of limited forest for huntingand the migration of men to the cities. Insects andlarvae are available, but only children in the ruralcommunities collect them for food.
Cost of foods
The nutritive cost of some basic staples to provide 20g protein and 4.2 MJ of energy (necessary to meet theneed of a pre-school child) was determined (King etal., 1984; Okeke and Eze, 2006). The data showedthat maize was the cheapest staple providing energyfor the child, while frozen fish and cowpea were thecheapest in providing protein. Table 12.5 shows thecost of providing a pre-school child’s requirement foriron. Here, moi moi (a bean-based recipe) was thecheapest (N14.80), followed by igbangwu (N16.13),a maize-based pudding. The cassava and soup/saucerecipes were more expensive (N78 to N95) as sourcesof iron for children. This was probably because of bulkand high moisture content.
Dietary evaluation
Infant-feeding practices reported by Igbo researchers Breastfeeding was found to be the traditional methodof feeding infants in the Igbo culture area, with over90 percent of Igbo mothers breastfeeding their infants.However, exclusive breastfeeding was not fully acceptedby Igbo mothers, since they would not stop givingwater to the infant. About 95 percent of mothers hadgiven their infants colostrum. Most mothers (62percent) stopped giving their children breastmilkbetween the age of 15 and 17 months; 18 percentstopped between 21 and 25 months, while 3.5 percentbreastfed beyond 25 months.
Apart from maize gruel (pap), complementaryfoods were generally those foods consumed by adults
in these communities. They were introduced beforefour months of age or later. Foods considered good forinfants were akara, ukwa (African breadfruit), ukpooka, African yambean, plantain pottage and boiledplantain and ujuju soup. Fruit was rarely given. Othermilks fed to children included powdered milk, soy milkand liquid whole cow’s milk, and 31.7 percent gavetheir children commercial cocoa-based beverages.
Contribution of traditional foods to nutrient intakeUsing the weighed food intake method, the nutrientintake of traditional foods and their contribution tototal energy and nutrient intake were calculated. Thetraditional diet of the Igbo culture is plant-based, withlittle contribution made by meat and their products.Simple processing (e.g. fermentation) and cookingmethods (e.g. steaming, baking and roasting) were usedin preparing traditional foods.
Traditional foods/diets are high in moisture contentas shown by the proximate composition in Tables12.2, 12.3a and 12.3b (in most cases above 50 percent),bulky and of low energy and nutrient densities.However, traditional foods contributed over 90 percentof the energy intake of rural communities in Igboculture area. There are community variations in thecontribution of specific food groups. In the Anambraarea, starchy roots and tubers, nuts and seeds madesubstantial contributions to energy intake, while inEnugu area, starchy roots and tubers, legumes andcereals significantly contributed to the intake of energy.The bulk of ascorbic acid came from vegetables inAnambra area (34 to 62 percent), while in Enuguarea, much of the ascorbic acid (51 to 58 percent)came from starchy roots and tubers. Red palm oil wasused in preparing most traditional dishes and recipesand thus is the major source of ß-carotene, a precursorof vitamin A. It contributed 70 to 80 percent ofvitamin A.
Although traditional foods/diets made substantialcontributions to nutrient intakes of the Igbo culturearea, they did not adequately meet the needs forenergy, calcium, riboflavin and niacin. The adequacyof vitamin A and protein intake from the traditional
279The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
diet needs to be interpreted with caution, since thediets are plant-based and, therefore, likely to be oflow bio-availability and digestibility (Madukwe andEne-Obong, 2006).
In considering the significance of traditional Igbofoods to food sources of nutrition of the population,a calculation was made of the percent of energy in thedaily diet derived from locally available foods. Thispercentage was 97 percent for children zero to twoyears of age, 92 percent for children three to five yearsof age, 95 percent for children 6 to 12 years of age,and 96 percent for mothers (Okeke et al., in press).
Nutritional statusIn the Ede-Oballa community, stunting was found in38.6 percent of males and 31.8 percent of females, closeto the national level of 42 percent (Maziya-Dixon etal., 2004). Wasting was found to be 14 percent and 12percent in males and females, respectively. Undernutritionwas more prevalent in children under two years of agewith about 84 percent of children undernourishedcompared to 16 percent of children two to five yearsof age. There was no prevalence of under-nutrition inchildren between 6 and 12 years of age.
Food attributes/card sortsThe general perception of food among the Igbos wasthat it gives blood and nourishment. Foods that werebelieved to give blood included animals, legumes, someseeds and vegetables. This was shown by all thecommunities studied. Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) wasbelieved to be rich in iron and is a blood-giving food.Also in one community, honey was mentioned as foodthat provided blood. In these communities, iron-givingfoods and body-building food were synonymous withblood-giving foods. Igbo people have good knowledgeof foods rich in energy since most carbohydrate andfatty foods were sorted for energy. These includedcereals, starchy roots, tubers, fruits and their products,vegetable oils and oily seeds like groundnuts. In somecases, fruits (pawpaw) and vegetables (cucumber, utazi,and carrots) were included.
Perception of specific mineral and vitamin-richfoods was interesting and worth noting. Natron trona
(akanwu), a sodium salt, was thought to be rich incalcium. Palm oil and vegetable oil were also perceivedto give calcium. Calcium is correctly associated withstrong bones by the Igbos but it appears that theirknowledge of its food sources was lacking. Cowskin(canda/kpomo) was incorrectly mentioned in one ofthe communities as being associated with helping tobuild bones. Interestingly, they had little difficultyidentifying vitamin A rich foods associated withimprovement of the eyes. In this regard, fruit, vegetablesand palm oil were mentioned. A general lack ofknowledge of fibre-rich foods was observed in mostIgbo communities. Only mango, orange and achara(Pennisetum spp.) were mentioned in two of thecommunities visited.
Igbo concepts of cold and hot food were noted.Cold foods were those that keep the body cool andcalm. Such foods included paw-paw, African breadfruit,pap, waterleaf, onion, tomatoes, pumpkin, utazi leaf(Piper guineense) osu (Pluerotus spp.), dry okro, coconut,avocado, pear and nchuanwu (Ocimum viridias). Hotfoods on the other hand were those that keep the bodyhot or warm. They included uziza seed (Piper guineense),ginger, hot pepper, nmimi (Dennettia tripetala) alligatorpepper (Aframomun melegueta) uda (Xylopia aethiopipa)and efu (Monodora myristica). Thus, hot foods consumedby the Igbos were mainly hot spices, while cold foodswere those that do not cause any “disturbance” in thebody after consumption.
Conclusions
T he Igbo were shown to have knowledge of anextensive and diverse food system that contains
all the necessary nutrients for human nutrition. Despitethis, the research study showed that there was considerableundernutrition, particularly in children. Educationand agricultural sustainability were seen as majorinterventions that would help communities developtheir resources within the local cultural context toprovide better advantages for health. Food processingtechnology would also assist to lighten women’s work.This research has provided the opportunity forunderstanding the food system, and its nutritional
Indigenous Peoples’ food systems | Igbo280
potential, as well as the cultural definitions to makemore high-quality foods available, accessible andacceptable. With concerted effort, food security canbe improved by empowerment of the local communitymembers to take best advantage of what they have intheir local environment.
Intervention strategies are suggested to addressprotein-energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficienciesas devastating public health problems in the Igbo culturearea, and in Nigeria generally. In addition to provisioningof protein foods, micronutrient deficiencies need tobe specifically addressed through multiple measures,including consumer education, social marketing,widespread distribution of supplements, fortificationof staple foods and the continued iodization of salt.For maximum effectiveness, interventions must beinter-sectoral, involving the health, agriculture, education,information, media and planning sectors.
Improving access to protein foods (legumes, bushfood, etc.) for young children, and improving accessto micronutrients through the local food system, aswell as the health care system, will contribute greatlyto the control of childhood infections, improved childsurvival and improved women’s health, therebycontributing to overall national development.AcknowledgementsFirstly, we gratefully acknowledge the continuous supportfrom the community leaders, without which this projectcould not have been undertaken: Eze Ohanyere 1, Abia State(His Royal Highness, HRH) Ohiya/Ohuhu; Ichie Godwin Ezeoke, Anambra State (Prime Minister) Ezinifite/Aku; ChiefI.S. Ofolue Ozoma,Delta State (His Royal Highness) Ubulu-Uku/Alumu; Igwe P.E. Eze, Enugu State (His Royal Highness)Ede-Oballa/Ukehe.
We acknowledge with sincere gratitude the spirit withwhich the Canadian Institutes of Health Research supportedthis project. We also acknowledge with many thanks thecollaborators from Canada especially Professor Harriet Kuhnleinwithout whom this project would not have been possible.We wish to say that hard work does not kill but hard workpays; this is with respect to Harriet Kuhnlein. Her visit to ourproject sites, her criticisms, and wisdom was what broughtthis work to this stage. Project team members also veryimportant to our end product are Chief Bill Erasmus, Chairof the Governing Board of the Centre for Indigenous Peoples’Nutrition and Environment, and Chief, Dene Nation and
Assembly of First Nations, Yellowknife. We also thank Peterand Lisa Kuhnlein (Anacortes, Washington) for their excellentdocumentation. As a sign of their appreciation for includingIgbo communities as part of the collaboration, the communitypresented the visitors from Canada with the highest valuedsymbol in Igbo land representing love, unity, honesty, andpeace: the Ofo staff.
We would like to thank all team members for theircontributions. Additional sincere thanks to the communitypartners without whom, this work would not have takenplace. The community participants were interested in theproject and very cooperative during the interview sessions.We thank you all for your wonderful support. We also thankour typist Mr Chukwuka Oluebube.
Students on the Project: • Ifeoma, N., M.Sc. – Project Topic ‘Food systems and
nutritional status of Indigenous Peoples in four communitiesin Enugu and Anambra States’ Nigeria’;
• Mama, B.C., M.Sc. – Project Topic ‘Intergenerational studies:grandmother-mother-daughter nutritional study in an Igboculture area of Nigeria’;
• Isiocha, S., M.Sc. – Project Topic ‘Documenting communityfood systems data tables for Igbo culture area of Nigeria’;
• Uduji, J., M.Sc. – Project Topic ‘Assessing nutritional statusand traditional foods of Indigenous People in Igbo culturearea of Abia State, Nigeria’;
• Ibeh, G. N., B.Sc. – Project Topic ‘Body weight perceptionof Igbos in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka communityof Nigeria’;
• Eze, C., B.Sc. – Project Topic ‘Traditional processing andnutritive cost of Igbo traditional foods commonly eatenin Nsukka, Enugu State of Nigeria’;
• Igattah, N., B.Sc. – Project Topic ‘Health benefits of traditionalfoods’.
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>> Photographic section p. XXXVI
281The Igbo traditional food system documented in four states in southern Nigeria
