6 th Edition 15-1 Social Psychology: The Individual in Society Chapter 15
Transcript
1. Chapter 15 6th EditionSocial Psychology: The Individual in
Society 15-1
2. Social Psychology and Culture Social psychology examines the
causes, types, and consequences of human interaction. Human
interactions do not occur in isolation; they occur in a specific
cultural context. Researchers are sometimes guilty of
ethnocentrism;they disregard cultural differences and see other
cultures as an extension of their own superior culture. 15-2
3. Social Psychology and Culture Because culture can influence
the type of research problem we choose to investigate, the nature
of our research hypothesis, and the selection of the variables we
choose to manipulate and record, researchers must guard against
ethnocentrism. 15-3
4. Social Psychology and Culture Individualism is defined as
placing ones own goals above those of the group. Collectivism is
defined as placing group goals above individual goals. The degree
of individualism or collectivism in a culture can influence many
aspects of behavior, such as interpersonal relations, self-concept,
parenting practices, self- esteem, and emotional expression.
15-4
5. Social Cognition Impression formation is the process of
developing an opinion about another person. Requires an actor and a
perceiver In addition to forming impressions of others, we also
make judgments, called attributions,about the reasons for or causes
of this persons behavior. 15-5
6. Social Cognition A stereotype (+ OR ) is a set of beliefs
about members of a particular group.They reduce the amount of
information that must be processed In-group stereotypes refer to
the stereotypes that we have about people who are in the same
group(s) we belong to; they typically are positive stereotypes.
Out-group stereotypes tend to be negative and describe others in
such terms as them or those people. They are persistent b/c: 1) If
we believe that a group of people possesses certain
characteristics, we may selectively note behaviors that are
consistent with those characteristics and fail to notice behaviors
that are inconsistent. 2) When your behaviors influence others to
respond the way you expect, a self-fulfilling prophecy is at work.
15-6
7. Social Cognition Examples The beautiful is good stereotype
assumes that attractive people have positive characteristicsthat
they are witty and intelligent and have pleasing personalities.
Therefore, attractive people can be expected to make better
impressions. 15-7
8. Social Cognition Four features of the actor have been shown
to influence impression formation. Those features are: 1) physical
appearance, 2) style and content of speech, 3) nonverbal mannerisms
and nonverbal communication, and 4) the perceivers prior
information about the actor. 15-8
9. Social Cognition With regard to impression formation, an
actors style of speech is important. Among the aspects of speech
that are influential are speed, volume, and inflections
(variations). The content of speech is also important. 15-9
10. Social Cognition More self-disclosure = more positive the
impression others form. However, too much self-disclosure early in
a relationship can create a negative impression. 15-10
11. Social Cognition Attribution is the process by which we
decide why certain events occurred or why a particular person acted
in a certain manner. With internal attributions, behavior is seen
as being caused by factors that reside within a person. With
external attributions, the causes of behavior are viewed as
residing outside an individual. 15-11
12. How We View Others and Their Behavior Our confidence in
making attributions regarding internal or external causes is
greatest when the behaviors we observe are consistent. Consensus
refers to the reactions of other people to the external object or
behavior in question. When consensus is high and everyone views the
behavior or object in the same manner, we tend to make external
attributions; when it is low and no one agrees about the behavior
or object in question, we tend to make internal attributions.
15-12
13. Social Cognition The fundamental attribution error is the
tendency to attribute behaviors to internal causes. Perceivers are
more likely to make internal attributions, while actors are more
likely to make external attributions. 15-13
14. Social Cognition The self-serving bias is the tendency to
make internal attributions when we are successful and external
attributions when we fail. The just world belief is the belief that
bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good
people. 15-14
15. Attitudes Attitudes are evaluative judgments about objects,
people, and thoughts that include affective, knowledge, and
behavioral components. They protect us from threats to the self or
ego. Bring order and meaning to the world. Can develop through
operant or classical conditioning. Can be measured with a (1 5)
Likert Scale 15-15
17. Interpersonal Relations Passionate love is a transitory
form of love characterized by strong emotional reactions, sexual
desires, and fantasies. Companionate love is characterized by a
long-term relationship and commitment. Sex roles can influence the
love relationship. 15-17
18. Interpersonal Relations Interdependence theory takes into
account the costs and rewards in a relationship, as well as the
available alternatives. Each person develops a comparison level
(CL); this CL is the general outcome you expect from a
relationship. Your CL is based on your past experiences and the
experiences of others in similar situations. 15-18
19. Interpersonal Relations You are satisfied with a
relationship when the outcomes are equal to or above your CL. You
become dissatisfied when the outcomes fall below your CL. People
leave a relationship when the outcomes fall below their CLs for
other relationships. 15-19
20. Interpersonal Relations Prosocial behavior is behavior that
benefits others. Altruism refers to helping behavior performed with
no anticipation of reward. (But is it?) Higher levels of prosocial
behavior are positively correlated with empathy, social skills, and
extraversion. 15-20
21. Interpersonal Relations Bystander effect: The tendency for
a group of bystanders to be less likely than an individual to
provide assistance to a person in trouble. 15-21
22. Interpersonal Relations Among the factors that determine
the bystander effect are degree of danger, embarrassment, not
knowing how to help, and diffusion of responsibility. 15-22
23. Interpersonal Relations Date rape appears to result from
misperceptions, especially on the part of men, about the
acceptability of sexual relations in certain situations. Heavy
alcohol consumption is another factor that often leads to date rape
on college campuses. 15-23
24. Social Influences on Behavior Persuasion is the use of
social influence to cause other people to change their attitudes
and behaviors. The expertise, attractiveness, and trustworthiness
of the source of a message are important determinants of
persuasion. 15-24
25. Social Influences on Behavior The sleeper effect occurs
when the message and its source become detached. Messages from
sources low in expertise, attractiveness, and trustworthiness may
increase in effectiveness due to the sleeper effect. 15-25
26. Social Influences on Behavior Obedience is the initiating
or changing of behavior in response to a direct command of an
authority. In cases in which obedience will result in harm to
another person, obedience increases with proximity to the source of
the commands but decreases with proximity to the victim. If the
source of the commands takes responsibility for any harm resulting
from obedience to those commands, the likelihood of obedience is
high. 15-26
27. Social Influences on Behavior Conformity results from
indirect social pressure on an individual to change his or her
behaviors and thoughts. The nature of the authority behind
pressures for conformity is not as obvious as it is in commands for
obedience. 15-27
28. Social Influences on Behavior Selecting the matching line
seems simple! However, 30% of Aschs participants chose incorrectly
to conform with the group. 15-28
29. Social Influences on Behavior Compliance refers to behavior
that is initiated or changed as a result of a request. The
foot-in-the-dooreffect is a phenomenon in which a person who has
agreed to a small request is more likely to comply with a
subsequent larger request. 15-29
30. Social Influences on Behavior In the door-in-the-face
technique, people are first presented with an extremely large
request, which they likely will refuse, and then they are presented
with a more reasonable request that they are more likely to accept.
The compliance technique known as reciprocity involves doing
something for someone else to make that person feel obligated to do
something in return. 15-30
31. The Individual as Part of a Social Group The presence of
other people increases arousal, which may result in enhanced
ability to perform a desired response. This effect is known as
social facilitation. 15-31
32. The Individual as Part of a Social Group Social loafing is
the tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task if
individual contributions are not evaluated. Social loafing can be
reduced by making the task more involving, challenging, appealing,
or competitive. 15-32
33. The Individual as Part of a Social Group Groupthink is the
tendency to make decisions intended primarily to promote the
harmony of the group. Groupthink occurs most often in very cohesive
groups that are insulated from other opinions and groups, feel that
they are invulnerable, have a respected and directive leader, and
are placed under time constraints to reach a decision concerning a
threat to the group. In these circumstances, groups tend to make
premature and poorly considered decisions. 15-33
34. The Individual as Part of a Social Group Steps to help
avoid being snared into the groupthink trap: The leader should
strive to remain impartial and nondirective. Opinions should be
gathered from people outside the group. Use secret ballots.
15-34
35. The Individual as Part of a Social Group Prejudice is
judging a person on the basis of stereotypes about the group to
which the person belongs. Prejudice may be reduced through contact
among members of different groups. Discrimination consists of
behaviors directed at members of a particular group that affect
them adversely. 15-35
36. The Individual as Part of a Social Group Prejudice
frequently justifies social standing or maintains self-esteem.
Because it makes us feel superior, prejudice can also satisfy our
emotional need for status. Gordon Allport proposed that equal
status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit
of common goals would reduce prejudice. 15-36