Chapter 16

Management: Arab World Edition Robbins, Coulter, Sidani, Jamali

Chapter 16: Managers As Leaders Lecturer: : [Insert your name here]

Learning Outcomes Follow this Learning Outline as you read and study this chapter.

16.1 Who Are Leaders and What Is Leadership

• Define leaders and leadership.

• Explain why managers should be leaders.

16.2 Historical Leadership In The Middle East

• Ibn-Khaldun Conception of Leadership

• The role of Asabiya (Group-bond in fostering leadership)

• The Prophetic-Caliphal Model of Leadership

16-3 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education

16.3 Early Leadership Theories

• Discuss what research has shown about leadership traits.

• Contrast the findings of the four behavioral leadership theories.

• Explain the dual nature of a leader’s behavior.

16.4 Contingency Theories of Leadership

• Explain Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership.

• Describe situational leadership theory.

• Discuss how path–goal theory explains leadership.

Learning Outcomes


16.5 Contemporary Views of Leadership

• Differentiate between transactional and transformational

leaders.

• Describe charismatic and visionary leadership.

• Discuss what team leadership involves.

16.6 Leadership Issues in the Twenty-First Century

• Describe the five sources of a leader’s power.

• Discuss the issues today’s leaders face.

Learning Outcomes


1. Define leaders and leadership.

2. Explain why managers should be leaders.

Who Are Leaders and What Is Leadership



Leader

Someone who can influence others and who has

managerial authority

Leadership

What leaders do; the process of influencing a group

to achieve goals



Although groups may have informal leaders who emerge, those are

not the leaders we’re studying.

Leadership research has tried to answer:

What is an effective leader?


1. Ibn-Khaldun Conception of Leadership

2. The role of Asabiya (Group-bond in fostering leadership)

3. The Prophetic-Caliphal Model of Leadership

Historical Leadership In The Middle East


Ibn-Khaldun Conception of Leadership

He was born in Tunis in the year 1332.

He was mainly interested in political leadership, but his conceptualization is important for understanding leadership in any context, business or non-business.

Ibn Khaldun emphasizes the personal qualities of the leader. He calls those qualities “perfecting details”.


Perfecting Details Include:

1. Generosity

2. Forgiveness of error

3. Patience and perseverance

4. Hospitality toward guests

5. Maintenance of the indigent

6. Execution of commitments

7. Respect for the religious law


Perfecting Details Include:

8. Reverence for old men and teachers

9. Fairness

10. Meekness

11. Consideration to the needs of followers

12. Avoidance of deception and fraud

13. Kindness to, and protection of, subjects.


The role of Asabiya

Asabiya (“group feeling” or “group bond”).

Asabiya stems from blood ties and alliances, with the former having

the most weight in fostering the leadership bond.

Blood ties may be an unimportant factor in the West as a source of

leadership, but they are important in the Arab region.


The Prophetic-Caliphal Model of Leadership

Four elements of the model:

(1) Personalism

(2) Individualism

(3) Lack of institutionalization

(4) The importance of the great man



Personalism refers to the degree that a person insists on his personal

opinion and the degree of concern and emphasis he has on himself.

Individualism means making decisions or actions that do not take

into account the opinions of the group.

The combination of personalism and individualism leads to a lack of

institutional development.



In cases of conflict or succession, there is no institution to fill the

vacuum. The vacuum is alternatively filled by an expectation of

the “great man”.

If the expected great man really turns out to be a great man, then

we have a prophetic type of leader whose relationship with

followers depends on love and compassion and voluntary compliance.

If the expected great man turns out to be an ordinary man then the

only way to ensure follower compliance is through coercion and

authoritarianism.


Exhibit 16–1 Khadra’s Model of Leadership

Personalism

Vacuum Lack of

institutionalism

Individualism

Expecting great man

Great Man

Ordinary Man Fear, coercion,

strife

Strong attachment to

the leader

Social Origins Leadership Climate Two Conditions Two Models

Prophetic Model

Caliphal Model


1. Discuss what research has shown about leadership traits.

2. Contrast the findings of the four behavioral leadership theories.

3. Explain the dual nature of a leader’s behavior.

Early Leadership Theories


Early Leadership Theories

Trait Theories (1920s–1930s)

• Research focused on identifying personal characteristics that

differentiated leaders from non-leaders was unsuccessful.

• Later research on the leadership process identified seven traits

associated with successful leadership:

• Drive, the desire to lead, honesty and integrity, self-

confidence, intelligence, job-relevant knowledge, and

extraversion.


Exhibit 16–2 Seven Traits Associated with Leadership

Source: S. A. Kirkpatrick and E. A. Locke, “Leadership: Do Traits Really Matter?” Academy of Management Executive, May 1991, pp. 48–60; T. A. Judge, J. E. Bono, R. llies, and M. W. Gerhardt, “Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review,” Journal of Applied Psychology, August 2002, pp. 765–780.


Behavioral Theories

1. University of Iowa Studies

2. Ohio State Studies

3. University of Michigan Studies

4. The Managerial Grid


Behavioral Theories

University of Iowa Studies (Kurt Lewin)

• Identified three leadership styles:

– Autocratic style: centralized authority, low participation

– Democratic style: involvement, high participation, feedback

– Laissez faire style: hands-off management


Behavioral Theories

University of Iowa Studies (Kurt Lewin)

• Research findings: mixed results

– No specific style was consistently better for producing better

performance.

– Employees were more satisfied under a democratic leader

than an autocratic leader.


Ohio State Studies

• Identified two dimensions of leader behavior:

– Initiating structure: the role of the leader in defining his or

her role and the roles of group members.

– Consideration: the leader’s mutual trust and respect for group

members’ ideas and feelings.

Behavioral Theories (cont’d)


Ohio State Studies

• Research findings: mixed results

– High-high leaders generally, but not always, achieved high

group task performance and satisfaction.

– Evidence indicated that situational factors appeared to strongly

influence leadership effectiveness.



University of Michigan Studies

• Identified two dimensions of leader behavior:

– Employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships

– Production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment

• Research findings: Leaders who are employee oriented are strongly

associated with high group productivity and high job satisfaction.



The Managerial Grid

• Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions:

concern for people and concern for production

• Places managerial styles in five categories:

• Impoverished management

• Task management

• Middle-of-the-road management

• Country club management

• Team management



Exhibit 16–3 Behavioral Theories of Leadership


Exhibit 16–3 (cont’d) Behavioral Theories of Leadership


Exhibit 16–4 The Managerial Grid

Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from “Breakthrough in Organization Development” by Robert R. Blake, Jane S. Mouton, Louis B. Barnes, and Larry E. Greiner, November–December 1964, p. 136. Copyright © 1964 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. All rights reserved.


Contingency Theories of Leadership

1. Explain Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership.

2. Describe situational leadership theory.

3. Discuss how path–goal theory explains leadership.


The Fiedler Model

Proposes that effective group performance depends upon the proper

match between the leader’s style of interacting with followers and

the degree to which the situation allows the leader to control and

influence.


The Fiedler Model

Assumptions:

A certain leadership style should be most effective in different types

of situations.

Leaders do not readily change leadership styles.

Matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation

to make it favorable to the leader is required.


The Fiedler Model

• Situational factors in matching leader to the situation:

• Leader–member relations

• Task structure

• Position power


Exhibit 16–5 Findings of the Fiedler Model


Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

• Argues that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right

leadership style which is contingent on the level of the followers’

readiness.

• Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on whether followers

accept or reject a leader.

• Readiness: the extent to which followers have the ability and

willingness to accomplish a specific task.

• Leaders must relinquish control over and contact with followers as they

become more competent.



• Creates four specific leadership styles incorporating Fiedler’s two

leadership dimensions:

• Telling: high task–low relationship leadership

• Selling: high task–high relationship leadership

• Participating: low task–high relationship leadership

• Delegating: low task–low relationship leadership



• Posits four stages for follower readiness:

• R1: followers are unable and unwilling

• R2: followers are unable but willing

• R3: followers are able but unwilling

• R4: followers are able and willing


Path-Goal Model

• States that the leader’s job is to assist his or her followers in

attaining their goals and to provide direction or support to ensure

their goals are compatible with organizational goals.


Path-Goal Model

• Leaders assume different leadership styles at different times

depending on the situation:

• Directive leader

• Supportive leader

• Participative leader

• Achievement oriented leader


Exhibit 16–6 Path-Goal Theory


Contemporary Views of Leadership

1. Differentiate between transactional and transformational leaders.

2. Describe charismatic and visionary leadership.

3. Discuss what team leadership involves.


Transactional-Transformational Leadership

Transactional Leadership

• Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of

established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.

Transformational Leadership

• Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests

for the good of the organization by clarifying role and task

requirements.


Team leadership

• Having patience to share information

• Being able to trust others and to give up authority

• Understanding when to intervene

• Managing the team’s external boundary

• Facilitating the team process

• Coaching, facilitating, handling disciplinary problems , reviewing

team and individual performance, training, and communication


1. Managing Power

2. Developing Trust

3. Empowering Employees

4. Leading across Cultures

5. Understanding Gender Differences

6. Gender differences in the Arab World

7. Becoming an Effective Leader

Leadership Issues in the Twenty-First Century


Managing Power

• Legitimate power

• The power a leader has as a result of his or her position.

• Coercive power

• The power a leader has to punish or control.

• Reward power

• The power to give positive benefits or rewards.

• Expert power

• The influence a leader can exert as a result of his or her expertise, skills, or knowledge.

• Referent power

• The power of a leader that arises because of a person’s desirable resources or admired personal traits.


Developing Trust

Credibility (of a Leader)

The assessment of a leader’s honesty, competence, and ability to inspire by his or her followers.

Trust

Is the belief of followers and others in the integrity, character, and ability of a leader.

Is related to increases in job performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, job satisfaction, and organization commitment.


Integrity: Honesty and truthfulness

Competence: Technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills

Consistency: Reliability, predictability, and good judgment in

handling situations

Loyalty: Willingness to protect a person, physically and

emotionally

Openness: Willingness to share ideas and information freely

Dimensions of Trust


Empowering Employees

Empowerment involves increasing the decision-making discretion of

workers such that teams can make key operating decisions that

directly affect their work.

• Why empower employees?

• Quicker responses to problems and faster decisions

• Addresses the problem of increased spans of control in relieving

managers to work on other problems


Cross-Cultural Leadership

Universal Elements of Effective Leadership

• Vision

• Foresight

• Providing encouragement

• Trustworthiness

• Dynamism

• Positiveness

• Proactiveness


Exhibit 16–7 Selected Cross-Cultural Leadership Findings

• Korean leaders are expected to be paternalistic toward

employees.

• Arab leaders who show kindness or generosity without

being asked to do so are seen by other Arabs as weak.

• Japanese leaders are expected to be humble and speak

frequently.

• Scandinavian and Dutch leaders who single out individuals

with public praise are likely to embarrass, not energize,

those individuals.

Source: Based on J. C. Kennedy, “Leadership in Malaysia: Traditional Values, International Outlook,” Academy of Management Executive, August 2002, pp. 15–16; F.C. Brodbeck, M. Frese, and M. Javidan, “Leadership Made in Germany: Low on Compassion, High on Performance,” Academy of Management Executive, February 2002, pp. 16–29; M. F. Peterson and J. G. Hunt, “International Perspectives on International Leadership,” Leadership Quarterly, Fall 1997, pp. 203–31; R. J. House and R. N. Aditya, “The Social Scientific Study of Leadership: Quo Vadis?” Journal of Management, vol. 23, no. 3, (1997), p. 463; and R. J. House, “Leadership in the Twenty-First Century,” in A. Howard (ed.), The Changing Nature of Work (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995), p. 442.


Exhibit 16–7 (cont’d) Selected Cross-Cultural Leadership Findings

• Effective leaders in Malaysia are expected to show

compassion while using more of an autocratic than a

participative style.

• Effective German leaders are characterized by high

performance orientation, low compassion, low self-

protection, low team orientation, high autonomy, and high

participation.

Source: Based on J. C. Kennedy, “Leadership in Malaysia: Traditional Values, International Outlook,” Academy of Management Executive, August 2002, pp. 15–16; F.C. Brodbeck, M. Frese, and M. Javidan, “Leadership Made in Germany: Low on Compassion, High on Performance,” Academy of Management Executive, February 2002, pp. 16–29; M. F. Peterson and J. G. Hunt, “International Perspectives on International Leadership,” Leadership Quarterly, Fall 1997, pp. 203–31; R. J. House and R. N. Aditya, “The Social Scientific Study of Leadership: Quo Vadis?” Journal of Management, vol. 23, no. 3, (1997), p. 463; and R. J. House, “Leadership in the Twenty-First Century,” in A. Howard (ed.), The Changing Nature of Work (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995), p. 442.


Gender Differences and Leadership: Research findings

Males and females use different styles.

Women tend to adopt a more democratic or participative style

unless in a male-dominated job.

Women tend to use transformational leadership.

Men tend to use transactional leadership.

Even if men and women differ in their leadership styles, we should

not assume that one is always preferable to the other.


Gender Differences In Leadership In The Arab World

• Leadership positions in the Arab world have traditionally been

monopolized by men.

• The dominant leadership prototype in Arab culture is a male

figure.

• However, many prominent women leaders have managed to reach

top decision-making positions.


Exhibit 16-8 Female Economic Activity Rate in Selected World Regions in 2010


Becoming an Effective Leader: Leader Training

• More likely to be successful with individuals who are high self-

monitors than with low self-monitors.

• Individuals with higher levels of motivation to lead are more

receptive to leadership development opportunities

What can be taught:

– Implementation skills

– Trust-building

– Mentoring

– Situational analysis


Becoming an Effective Leader: Substitutes for Leadership

Sometimes, leadership may not be important!

Follower characteristics

Experience, training, professional orientation, or the need for

independence

Job characteristics

Routine, unambiguous, and satisfying jobs

Organizational characteristics

Explicit formalized goals, rigid rules and procedures, or cohesive work

groups


Terms to Know

leader

leadership

behavioral theories

autocratic style

democratic style

laissez-faire style

initiating structure

consideration

high-high leader

managerial grid

Fiedler contingency model

leader-member relations

task structure

position power

situational leadership theory (SLT)

readiness

leader participation model

path–goal theory

transactional leaders

transformational leaders


Terms to Know

legitimate power

coercive power

reward power

expert power

referent power

credibility

trust

empowerment



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