Chapter 11 – Livestock Integration into Sustainable Resource Utilization • Learning Objectives: 1) To introduce the concept of biosphere and its regulation by biological processes 2) To discuss the concept that agriculture and livestock production should be integrated into the biosphere as part of natural processes. This concept is the basis of the currently popular topics of sustainable agriculture and holistic resource management. 3) To present the idea that while a “New Agriculture” is needed, giving greater attention to environmental and ecological concerns, this should be regarded as an opportunity rather than as a threat. Changes forced by societal concerns have generally caused improvements in the industry.
Transcript
Chapter 11 – Livestock Integration into Sustainable Resource Utilization
• Learning Objectives: 1) To introduce the concept of biosphere and its
regulation by biological processes
2) To discuss the concept that agriculture and livestock production should be integrated into the biosphere as part of natural processes. This concept is the basis of the currently popular topics of sustainable agriculture and holistic resource management.
3) To present the idea that while a “New Agriculture” is
needed, giving greater attention to environmental
and ecological concerns, this should be regarded as
an opportunity rather than as a threat. Changes
forced by societal concerns have generally caused
improvements in the industry.
I. INTRODUCTION
II. MONOCULTURE AND THE LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
III. FORWARD TO THE PAST: SUSTAINABLE OR
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
IV. MAKING THE DESERTS BLOOM
V. FOOD TECHNOLOGY: ANOTHER CHALLENGE TO
THE LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY
VI. THE FUTURE OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
VII. OUR ACHILLES’ HEEL: THE POPULATION BOMB
VIII. GLOBAL CAPITALISM AND THE NEW WORLD
ORDER
IX. SOME PERSONAL THOUGHTS
Chapter Outline:
I. INTRODUCTION
• The concept of Earth as a self-regulating biosphere is the framework upon which sustainable resource utilization rests.
• Biosphere – the planet is a self-sustaining system maintained by biological processes. It employs homeostatic mechanisms to modulate change.
• Homeostasis – in biology refers to the constancy of the internal environment. Webster: “A relatively stable state of equilibrium or a tendency toward such a state between the different but interdependent elements or groups of elements of an organism or group.”
• The complex (chemical and physical) composition of the biosphere is maintained by living, interconnected processes.
• Most human impacts have been negative in terms of maintaining an environment consistent with a high quality of life.
I. INTRODUCTION
• Gaia or Ge - Derived from the Greek goddess that refers to the concept that the composition of the planet’s life support systems, the atmosphere, soil and oceans, is established, maintained, and controlled by biological systems responding to feedback mechanisms, a belief promoted by scientist-philosopher, James Lovelock.
I. INTRODUCTION
• According to Lovelock (1987), without life on Earth, the atmosphere would consist of 99% CO2 and 1% argon (rather than 0.03% Co2, 78% N and 21% O2) and the oceans would contain 13% salt (rather than only 3.5%). Biogeological cycles evolved over billion of years!
II. MONOCULTURE AND THE LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
• Green Revolution – Norman Borlaug; Some experts believe that this is not sustainable. Why?
• Endangered Breeds – The same monoculture trend in plant breeding is occurring in animal breeding. What is the concern? How are breeds and(or) germplasm being preserved?
• Cultural Heritage – Breeds have evolved in human societies. They define the cultures and their values and traditions.
• Losses of Biodiversity – Genetic diversity is necessary for a population to be able to adapt to changing environmental conditions
III. FORWARD TO THE PAST: SUSTAINABLE OR ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
• Alternative Agriculture – is defined by the NRC (1989) as any system of food or fiber production that systematically pursues the following goals:
1. More thorough incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycles, nitrogen fixation, and pest-predator relationships into agricultural production
2. Reduction in the use of inputs with the greatest potential to harm the environment or the health of farmers or consumers
3. Greater use of the biological and genetic potential of a diversity of plant and animal species
4. Long-term sustainability of agricultural techniques
5. Emphasis on conservation of soil, water, energy, and biological resources
6. (Cheeke) – Upholding Agrarian values: Alternative agriculture implies an emphasis on the family farm and traditional Agrarian ethics.
III. FORWARD TO THE PAST: SUSTAINABLE OR ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
• Other characteristics of Sustainable Agriculture includes preservation of farm traditions and farm culture, cooperation rather than competition among farmers, and maintenance of the integrity of small communities (Lasley et al., 1993).
• In contrast , Lasley et al. (1993) characterizes industrial agriculture as “motivated by self-interest, and lack of interest in farm traditions and rural culture… Farm work is viewed as drudgery and thus should be replaced by machinery and technology. In the industrial model, the emphasis is on speed, quantity and profit”.
III. FORWARD TO THE PAST: SUSTAINABLE OR ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
• Historically, great civilizations have risen on the strength of their agriculture and subsequently collapsed because their farming methods eroded or destroyed the natural resource base (Horrigan et al., 2002).
• Western Civilization for at least the last several hundred years has been exploitive of the natural environment. The Earth’s riches seemed inexhaustible!
• The terms “sustainable” and “alternative agriculture” imply that current agricultural techniques may not be optimal for the long term.
III. FORWARD TO THE PAST: SUSTAINABLE OR ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
• Ecosystem – An assembly of organisms and their associated chemical and physical environment (Heitschmidt et al., 1996), which they related to long-term sustainability of animal agriculture.
• Agricultural ecosystems consist of abiotic components (climate, atmosphere, and soil) and biotic components (producers, consumers, and decomposers) – Producers capture solar energy
– Consumers are organisms that obtain their energy from eating other organisms (herbivores and carnivores)
– Decomposers are microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi that decompose wastes of consumers and recycle them back into the food chain (energy-processing pathways that determine the energy flow through an ecosystem)
– First and Second Law of Thermodynamics? (page 404)
III. FORWARD TO THE PAST: SUSTAINABLE OR ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
• Food Chains – are energy-processing pathways that determine the energy flow through an ecosystem. Are you eating low or high on the food chain?
III. FORWARD TO THE PAST: SUSTAINABLE OR ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
• Heitschmidt et al. (1996) report that “Results pointedly reveal the high level of dependency of the U.S. beef cattle industry on fossil fuels”. They promote the concept that animals (livestock) should act as “energy brokers”, meaning that they convert low-quality human feedstuffs into high-quality human feedstuffs.
• Oltjen and Beckett (1996) further stress that calculations of energy efficiency of conversion into animal products, particularly for ruminants, should be based on only human-consumable feedstuffs (e.g., grain). This concept relates well to my rabbit-sweet potato forage research project at TAMUK. In LDCs, village poultry scavenge and swine are usually only fed scraps and human food wastes.
III. FORWARD TO THE PAST: SUSTAINABLE OR ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
• USDA agronomist, Edward Faulkner , in a 1943 report blamed the moldboard plow for causing the Dust Bowl in the 1930s. He also observed that weeds and other vegetation growing in fencerows and other undisturbed areas were often more vigorous than the adjacent crops, where the land had been plowed and cultivated, fertilized, and subjected to other agricultural practices!
• He recognized that in natural environments, the soil has a definite biological profile. Organic debris at the surface is broken down… Mother Nature is more productive than modern farmers (page 405).
• Faulkner (1943) in his classic Plowman’s Folly closely observed the natural formation of soil and concluded that the moldboard plow was in direct conflict with the natural processes. Read excerpt from Little (1987) on page 406.
• Faulkner had his enemies, but today he is regarded as a guardian of the land, being vindicated decades later!
III. FORWARD TO THE PAST: SUSTAINABLE OR ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
• In 1962, Rachel Carson, published her book, Silent Spring, which brought worldwide attention to possible negative effects of the use of pesticides and herbicides, perhaps contributing to the development and use of more environmentally-friendly chemicals. Presently, habitat loss is a major concern. For example, deforestation in Central and South America can result in poor breeding success and(or) scarcity of neotropical songbirds in Iowa!
• Robert Rodale, founder of Organic Gardening and Farming magazine, was also ahead of his time. For decades, he promoted organic farming practices. The importance of organic matter in maintaining soil structure and fertility are now well known.
III. FORWARD TO THE PAST: SUSTAINABLE OR ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
• Various types of conservation tillage (No-till) practices have been developed and adopted to minimize mechanical disruption of the soil, which have become more common in grain-producing areas of the U.S., resulting in lower fuel costs and improved soil and water conservation and microbial –enhancing activities. What is chemical tillage and why is this practice criticized?
• No-till systems increase the role of fungi relative to bacteria as the primary decomposers of organic matter, whereas plowing favors disturbance-adapted bacteria with high metabolic rates that cause more rapid breakdown of organic matter (and thus potential leaching) and greater mobility of minerals. Thus, Edward Faulkner seems to have been posthumously vindicated.
IV. MAKING THE DESERTS BLOOM
• The Agrarian Belief System – is based on the primary importance of agriculture to society, both socially and economically. Agrarians (farmers and ranchers) tend to view farming and ranching as the most honorable and virtuous way of life. Agrarian ideology is largely based on beliefs and writings of Thomas Jefferson, who believed that the nation should rest on a foundation of yeoman farmers.
V. FOOD TECHNOLOGY: ANOTHER CHALLENGE TO THE LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY
• There is likely to be a continued erosion of the market for animal products because of the availability of acceptable, but less expensive, plant-based substitutes (e.g., margarine instead of butter, imitation bacon from soybeans, and synthetic cheese and ice cream)
• It is almost inevitable that advances in food science and technology will result in facsimiles of meat and other animal products becoming more palatable, more like the real thing, and less expensive
• How should animal industries (and scientists) respond to this challenge?
• What will be the place for livestock production in the “new agriculture”?
VI. THE FUTURE OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
• What will it be?: a) Intensive, large-scale, technology-based livestock production
b) Smaller-scale, alternative agriculture with livestock-crop integration
c) Combination of a and b
• Cheeke contends that unless blocked by legislation, “factory farms” will likely prevail because of cost efficiencies. Another factor is the further depletion of fossil fuel supplies “cheap energy”. Are governments willing to continue to pay subsidies to small family farms to protect the character of the countryside?
VI. THE FUTURE OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
• Enterprise type “b” will likely continue in LDCs. Animal production systems have evolved over hundreds or thousands of years and are very effectively integrated with crop and vegetable production. Rural subsistence farming will be essential for many people for survival.
• Recently, some LDC’s have joined the ranks of DC (China and India), in which case the growing demand for AFPs for people in cities will be met by industrialized animal production involving corporations.
VII. OUR ACHILLES’ HEEL: THE POPULATION BOMB
• More people are alive today than all the people born before 1900! Why the dramatic increase? Where has population stabilization occurred? In 2050 it is expected that the present world population will double. Our ultimate aim should be a stable world population.
• In modern times, populations have grown fastest in countries with the least food and slowest in countries where food is abundant. Why?
VII. OUR ACHILLES’ HEEL: THE POPULATION BOMB
• When resources are scarce, political conflicts and violence are expected, having ecological consequences, making solutions more complex. According to many ecologists, a mass extinction event caused by humans is underway.
• When other animal species experience excessive crowding and food shortage under unsanitary conditions, a catastrophic event that decimates the population usually occurs. Role of emerging viruses?
• We seem to be faced with a choice: control the population of our species to a sustainable level, or Gaia (Mother Nature) will do it for us!
VIII. GLOBAL CAPITALISM AND THE NEW WORLD ORDER
• Cheeke: In the next few years, the world will either be dramatically better or dramatically worse!
• How can we, the 7 billion citizens of Planet Earth, develop a sustainable, equitable, and humane culture?
• As society leaves the industrial age, where is it headed? The success of the Industrial Revolution resulted was based on massive exploitation of non-renewable resources and an imposing (externalizing) allocation of many of the real costs of production on someone or somewhere else.
• What does this have to do with farming and livestock production?
VIII. GLOBAL CAPITALISM AND THE NEW WORLD ORDER
Models of Global Capitalism: 1. Industrialized, vertically integrated poultry production – The classic example of the forces at
work in the globalization of capitalism, achieving great accumulations of wealth for a few, at the expense of the poorly rewarded labor of many. Donald Tyson of Tyson Foods paid processing plant workers $5.27 per hour in 1995. Is this the intent of trickle-down economics?
2. Who is Les Schwab and what is his model of distribution of wealth (page 419)?
3. Bill Gates of Microsoft in Seattle has a personal worth in excess of $35 billion. What is the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation?
VIII. GLOBAL CAPITALISM AND THE NEW WORLD ORDER
Models of Global Capitalism: 4. The success of Global Capitalism rests on its ability to be on the move, to take advantage of
ever-lower labor costs to “improve efficiency”.
5. The industrialization of animal (and plant) agriculture, producing cheap food, may have come at the expense of quality of life. What is the basis for Cheeke’s statement?
6. On the contrary, maintaining a component of “farming as a way of life” in agriculture could help satisfy the basic desires of people to be independent, to like and be interested in what they are doing, and to feel satisfied with their quality of life. “Slow Food Movement”
VIII. GLOBAL CAPITALISM AND THE NEW WORLD ORDER
Models of Global Capitalism: 7. Uhl and Anderson (2001) suggested that sustainability should become a central organizing
focus for higher education, instead of “mindlessly promoting economic globalization and homogenization of culture”. Universities could be the catalyst in creating a new generation of socially and ecologically responsible citizens.
8. Concentration of germplasm into a few crops and livestock breeds, patented and owned by a few corporate giants, so that worldwide we all get the same food, prepared the same way, with high economic efficiency, is the logical conclusion of global capitalism in agriculture.
9. Who are Jose Bove, Vandana Shiva, and David Gergen? Role of WTO? (pages 422-423)
10. The Third World deserves to be more than a place to mass produce cheap food, clothing, and electronics for the United States, Europe, and Japan.
IX. SOME PERSONAL THOUGHTS
• Cheeke: “Growth, development, and subduing the wilderness to put it to human used formed the core of his early belief system.” His belief system later matured as he gained a deeper understanding of biological and ecological processes of our planet… recognizing the need for sustainable activities rather than mere exploitation.
• The need for a greater emphasis on integrating animal (and plant agriculture) into sustainable agroecology. If we don’t fix it, society will do it for us through forced legislation and banning, ergo veganism, animal food products from their diet! Moreover, with current technology, people can survive and live well without consuming meat or using animal products, and they have every right to do so.
• Instead, we should face up to these social challenges and react positively, which will require a change in traditional agrarian values
IX. SOME PERSONAL THOUGHTS
• Cheeke’s crystal ball: Agriculture can make contributions to human welfare beyond simply producing food. These functions are known as ecosystem services: 1. Regulation of atmospheric gases, flood control,
water storage, soil formation, waste treatment and pollution control, wildlife habitat, recreational opportunities, cultural and aesthetic aspects.
• Nielsen (1992) “presently, farmers are viewed as producers of food. If sustainable agriculture is to become a reality, farmers must be regarded as managers of healthy ecounits …”
• Such changes will occur only when environmentally-friendly farming is also the most profitable system.
IX. SOME PERSONAL THOUGHTS
• Lastly, farmers and ranchers should become true ecosystem managers and validate the common claim that farmers and ranchers are the original environmentalists.
