Chapter 17: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration.

Chapter 17: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration


• Turks never formed one group• Organized into clans that often fought• All spoke related languages – all were nomads or descendants of nomads• Dominated steppes• Settled societies in Persia, Anatolia and India

Turkish Migrations and Imperial Expansion

Turkish Empires and Their Neighbors, ca. 1210 C.E.


• Rainfall in central Asia is too little to support large-scale agriculture• Good for herding / raising cattle, horses, sheep, goats, camels

• Food • Clothing• Shelter (yurts)

• Migratory patterns to follow pastureland (Moved after the animals thinned the grasses)• Small-scale farming, rudimentary artisanry

Nomadic Economy and Society


• Trade links between nomadic and settled peoples• Nomads engage in long-distance travel

• Caravan routes

Nomadic Economy


• Governance basically clan-based• Charismatic individuals become nobles, occasionally assert authority• Unusually fluid status for nobility

• Hereditary, but could be lost through incompetence• Advancement for meritorious commoners

Nomadic Society


• Women wielded considerable influence• Advisors• Occasionally regents or rulers

Gender Relations

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• Shamans center of pagan worship• Appeal of Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Islam, Manichaeism from 6th century C.E.

• Many converted• Conversion to Islam in tenth century due to Abbasid influence

Nomadic Religion


• Large confederations under a khan• Authority extended through tribal elders• Exceptionally strong cavalries

• Mobility• Speed

Military Organization


• 8th to 10th centuries, Turkish peoples on border of Abbasid empire• Service in Abbasid armies

• Eventually came to dominate Abbasid caliphs

Saljuq Turks and the Abbasid Empire


•1055, Saljuq leader Tughril Beg recognized as sultan by Abasidian Caliph• Tughril consolidated his hold on capital, Baghdad, then… • He and successors extended rule to other parts of the empire (Syria, Palestine, etc.)

• Abbasid caliphs served as figureheads of authority

Saljuq Turks and the Abbasid Empire


• 1071, Saljuq Turks defeat Byzantine army at Battle of Manzikert, take emperor captive• Large-scale invasion of Anatolia• Many conversions to Islam• Ottoman Turks conquer Constantinople in 1453

Saljuq Turks and the Byzantine Empire




• Other Turks enter India • Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan, invades northern India• At first for plunder, later to rule• Northern India completely dominated by 13th century• Persecution of Buddhists, Hindus

Ghaznavid Turks and the Sultanate of Delhi



• The Turkish conquests of Persia, Anatolia and India were part of a larger movement by nomadic people• Yet what the Turks did was small in comparison to what the Mongols would do

Turkish Empires in Persia, Anatolia, and India

END



• Temüjin, b. 1167• Father prominent warrior, poisoned ca. 1177, forced into poverty

Chinggis Khan (1167-1227) and the Making of the Mongol Empire


• Mastered steppe diplomacy, elimination of enemies• Brought all Mongol tribes into one confederation• 1206, proclaimed Chinggis Khan (“universal ruler”)

Chinggis Khan (1167-1227) and the Making of the Mongol Empire


• Broke up tribal organization• Formed military units from men of different tribes• Promoted officials on basis of merit and loyalty• Established capital at Karakorum – luxury palace

Mongol Political Organization


• Mongol population only one million (less than 1% of Chinese population)• Army numbered 100,000-125,000

• Strengths:• Cavalry• Short bows• Rewarded enemies who surrendered, cruel to enemies who fought

Mongol Arms


• Conquest of China by 1220• Conquest of Afghanistan, Persia

• Had been ruled by succesor to Saljuk Turks, Khwarazm Shah• Emissaries murdered; following year, Chinggis Khan destroys ruler

Mongol Conquests


• Ravaged lands to prevent future rebellions• Large-scale, long-term devastation

Mongol Conquests


• Khan ruled through army force – did not have central gov’t.• Assigned Mongol overlords to supervise local administrators and collect tribute• His heirs continued conquests, but also tried to create a more permanent administration

Mongol Empire


• Power struggle between sons and grandsons• Would eventually divide into four regional empires

The Mongol Empires, ca. 1300 C.E.

Mongol Empire


• Grandson of Chinggis Khan – ruled at the height of Mongolian Empire• Conquered the Song Dynasty, Ruled China• Established Yuan dynasty (to 1368)• Ruthless warrior, but religiously tolerant

• Hosted Marco Polo

Khubilai Khan (r. 1264-1294)


• Unsuccessful forays into Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma, Java• Two attempted invasions of Japan (1274, 1281) turned back by typhoons (kamikaze: “divine winds”)

Khubilai Khan (r. 1264-1294)


• Conquest of Russia, 1237-1241• Established tributary relationship to 15th century• Rule over Crimea to late 18th century

• Raids into Poland, Hungary, Germany

The Golden Horde


• Abbasid empire toppled, the Mongolians establish the Ilkhanate of Persia• Baghdad sacked, 1258

• 200,000 massacred• Expansion into Syria checked by Egyptian forces

The Ilkhanate of Persia


• Nomadic conquerors had to learn to rule sedentary societies• Inexperienced, lost control of most lands within a century

• Persia: dependence on existing administration to deliver tax revenues• Left matters of governance to bureaucracy

• Eventually assimilated into Islamic lifestyle

Mongol Rule in Persia

END



• The Mongols strove to maintain strict separation from Chinese• Intermarriage forbidden• Chinese forbidden to study Mongol language

• Imported administrators from other areas (especially Arabs, Persians)• Yet tolerated religious freedoms

Mongol Rule in China


• Shamanism remains popular• Lamaist school of Buddhism (Tibet) increasingly popular among Mongols

• Large element of magic, similar to shamanism• Ingratiating attitude to Mongols: khans as incarnations of Buddha

The Mongols and Buddhism


• Experience with long-distance trade• Protection of traveling merchants• Volume of trade across central Asia increases

• Diplomatic missions protected

The Mongols and Western Integration


• Missionary activity increases• Mongol resettlement policies

Mongols didn’t have many craftsmen or specialists Recruited people from their allies and the conquered people Moved them to where they could be most useful Would separate the conquered people with specialized skills and send them to capital at Karakorum or elsewhere

The Mongols and Western Integration


• Overspending, poor tax returns from overburdened peasantry• Ilkhan attempts to replace precious metal currency with paper in 1290s

• Failure, forced to rescind• Factional fighting• Last ilkhan dies without heir in 1335, Mongol rule collapses

Decline of Mongol Empire in Persia


• Mongols spend bullion that supported paper currency• Public loses confidence in paper money, prices rise• From 1320s, major power struggles

Decline of Yuan Dynasty in China


• Bubonic plague spreads 1330-1340s• 1368, Mongols flee peasant rebellion, return to the steppes

Decline of Yuan Dynasty in China


• Khanate of Chaghatai in central Asia• Continued threat to NW borders of China until 18th century

• Golden Horde in Caucasus and steppes to mid-sixteenth century• Continued threat to Russia

Attacking a port at Kaffa near the Black Sea

Surviving Mongol Khanates


• The decline of the Mongol empire did not end the influence of nomadic peoples on Eurasia• Turkish conqueror Timur

• Timur the Lame: Tamerlane• United Turkish nomads in khanate of Chaghatai• Major military campaigns

• Built capital in Samarkand

Tamerlane the Conqueror (ca. 1336-1405)

Tamerlane’s Empire, ca. 1405 C.E.


• Poor organization of governing structure, esp. after Tamarlane’s death• Power struggles divide empire into four - yet heavily influenced several empires:

• Mughal• Safavid• Ottoman

Tamarlane’s Heirs


• Osman, charismatic leader who dominates part of Anatolia• Declares independence from Saljuq sultan, 1299• Attacks Byzantine empire

• Followers known as Osmanlis (Ottomans)

The Ottoman Empire


• 1350s conquests in the Balkans• Local support for Ottoman invasion

• Peasants unhappy with fragmented, ineffective Byzantine rule• Tamerlane defeats Ottoman forces in 1402, but Ottomans recover by 1440s

Ottoman Conquests


• The Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II (“Mehmed the Conqueror”)• Renamed the city of Constantinople to Istanbul - capital of Ottoman empire

The Capture of Constantinople

END

Crashcourse: The Mongols

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szxPar0BcMo


• 1295, Ilkhan Ghazan converted and most followed his example – led to large scale massacres of Christians and Jews – Islam returned to privileged status

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Chapter 17: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration.

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