Chapter 18

Equal Employment Opportunities

Chapter 18

Equal Employment Opportunities

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Chapter ObjectivesChapter Objectives1. Indicate what types of discrimination are

prohibited by federal laws.2. List and describe the three major federal

statutes that prohibit employment discrimination.

3. Distinguish between disparate-treatment discrimination and disparate-impact discrimination.

4. Summarize the remedies available to victims of employment discrimination.

5. Discuss how employers can defend against claims of employment discrimination.

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Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964Title VII prohibits employment discrimination based on race, color, national origin, religion, or gender.Procedures under Title VII Employees must file a claim with the EEOC.

The EEOC may sue the employer on the employee’s behalf; if not, the employee may sue the employer directly.

Title VII prohibits employment discrimination based on race, color, national origin, religion, or gender.Procedures under Title VII Employees must file a claim with the EEOC.

The EEOC may sue the employer on the employee’s behalf; if not, the employee may sue the employer directly.

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Intentional vs. Unintentional Discrimination

Intentional vs. Unintentional DiscriminationTitle VII prohibits both intentional and

unintentional discrimination. Disparate-treatment discrimination is a form of employment discrimination that results when an employer intentionally discriminates against employees who are members of protected classes.Disparate-impact discrimination occurs when an employer’s practice, such as hiring only persons with a certain level of education, has the effect of discriminating against a class of persons protected by Title VII.

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Discrimination Based on Race, Color, and National

Origin

Discrimination Based on Race, Color, and National

OriginIf a company’s standards or policies for selecting or promoting employees have the effect of discriminating against employees or job applicants on the basis of race, color, or national origin, they are illegal, unless (except for race) they have a substantial, demonstrable relationship to realistic qualifications for the job in question.

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Case 18.1 McCullough v. Real Foods, Inc.

Case 18.1 McCullough v. Real Foods, Inc.

In 1992, Cynthia McCullough, an African American woman with a college degree, began working at a deli in Chubb’s Finer Foods (Real Foods, Inc.), owned by Ron Meredith. After a year, Meredith hired a less educated white woman, Kathy Craven. Three months later, Craven was made manager. McCullough filed a suit alleging race discrimination. The court ruled in favor of Real Foods, which was remanded by the U.S. Court of Appeals.When applying Title VII in cases such as McCullough’s, do you think that courts are acting as “super-personnel departments” reviewing the wisdom or fairness of the business judgments made by employers?

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Discrimination Based on Religion

Discrimination Based on Religion

An employer must “reasonably accommodate” the religious practices of its employees, unless to do so would cause undue hardship to the employer's business.

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Discrimination Based on GenderDiscrimination

Based on Gender

Employers are prohibited from classifying jobs as male or female and from advertising in help-wanted columns that are designated male or female unless the employer can prove that the gender of the applicant is essential to the job.

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Case 18.2 Carey v. Mount Desert Island

Hospital

Case 18.2 Carey v. Mount Desert Island

HospitalMichael Carey was fired by Leslie Hawkins, Mountain Desert Island Hospital CEO, for “lack of confidence.” Carey filed a suit against MDI for gender discrimination. The court awarded Carey more than $300,000 in damages.Is it possible for jurors and judges to overcome their prejudices in deciding cases in which gender plays a key role?

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Sexual HarassmentSexual HarassmentThe following types of verbal or physical conduct constitute hostile-environment harassment: Conduct that has the purpose or effect of

creating an intimidating; hostile, or offensive working environment.

Conduct that has the purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with an individual’s work performance.

Conduct that otherwise adversely affects an individual’s employment opportunities.

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Sexual Harassment in Other Nations

Sexual Harassment in Other Nations

Sexual harassment in the workplace is not only a problem in the U.S. It is a world-wide problem for women workers. In many other countries, there is no legal protection against any form of employment discrimination. Even in those countries that do have laws prohibiting discriminatory employment practices, including gender-based discrimination, those laws often do not specifically include sexual harassment as a discriminatory practice.Why do you think U.S. corporations are more aggressive than European companies in taking steps to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace?

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Remedies under Title VIIRemedies under Title VIIIf a plaintiff proves that unlawful discrimination occurred he or she may be awarded: reinstatement back pay retroactive promotions

Damages may be awarded for intentional discrimination.

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Supreme Court Guidelines on Liability for Sexual Harassment

Supreme Court Guidelines on Liability for Sexual Harassment

In 1998, two separate cases in the U.S. Supreme Court issued significant guidelines relating to the liability of employers for their supervisors’ harassment of employees in the workplace. Employers have an affirmative defense against liability for their supervisors’ harassment of employees: If they show they have taken “reasonable care to prevent

and correct promptly any sexually harassing behavior” (by policies and complaint procedures).

The employee suing for harassment failed to follow these policies and procedures.

The court indicated at one point that an employer’s potential liability for sexual harassment in the workplace might be considered just one of the “costs of doing business.” Is it fair to impose such a burden on business? Would it be fair not to do so?

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Arbitration Clauses in Contracts

Arbitration Clauses in Contracts

An ongoing issue in employment relationships concerns arbitration clauses in employment contracts.On one hand, the Federal Arbitration Act of 1925 and various state statues favors arbitration or other dispute resolutions to settle employment disputes.On the other hand, critics of this policy claim that all employees, even those who sign contracts containing arbitration clauses, should be allowed to pursue remedies for employment discrimination provided by Title VII, the ADEA, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.

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Equal Pay Act of 1963Equal Pay Act of 1963The act prohibits gender-based discrimination in the wages paid for equal work on jobs when their performance requires equal skill, effort, and responsibility under similar conditions.A wage differential for equal work is justified if it is shown to be because of: seniority merit a system that pays according to quality or

quantity of production any factor other than gender

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Discrimination Based on Age

Discrimination Based on Age

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) of 1967 prohibits employment discrimination on the basis of age against individuals forty years of age or older.Procedures for bringing a case under the ADEA are similar to those for bringing a case under Title VII.

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Case 18.3 Rhodes v. Guiberson Oil Tools

Case 18.3 Rhodes v. Guiberson Oil Tools

When Rhodes was discharged by Guiberson Oil Tools at the age of fifty-six, he was told the discharge was part of a reduction in work force. Within six weeks, Guiberson hired a forty-two-year-old person to do the same job.Rhodes filed a suit against Guiberson under the Age Discrimination in Employment Act.If age is not the sole reason for an adverse employment decision, how significant a factor do you think it should be to support a finding of discrimination?

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DiscriminationBased on Disability

DiscriminationBased on Disability

The ADA of 1990 prohibits employment discrimination against persons with disabilities who are otherwise qualified to perform the essential functions of the jobs for which they apply.Procedures and remedies To prevail on a claim under the ADA, the plaintiff

must show that he or she has a disability, is otherwise qualified for the employment in question, and was excluded from the employment solely because of the disability.

Procedures under the ADA are similar to those required in Title VII cases; remedies are also similar to those under Title VII.

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What is a Disability?What is a Disability?The ADA defines the term disability as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities; a record of such impairment; or being regarded as having such an impairment.

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Case 17.4 Sutton v. United Airlines, Inc.Case 17.4 Sutton v. United Airlines, Inc.

Karen and Kimberly Sutton, without corrective lenses, can’t see well enough to do things such as drive, watch T.V., or shop, but with corrective measures, each functions identically to individuals without similar impairment. In 1992, they applied to United Airlines, Inc. (UA), for employment as commercial airline pilots. They met all requirements except the UA’s minimum vision requirement. The Suttons filed a suit alleging discrimination under the ADA. The court dismissed their complaint.When the ADA went into effect, the courts were faced with the challenge of interpreting the act’s provisions. Should Congress pay more attention to details when it drafts legislation? Is it appropriate for the courts to assume such “lawmaking’ responsibilities?

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Reasonable Accommodation

Reasonable Accommodation

Employers are required to reasonably accommodate the needs of persons with disabilities.Reasonable accommodations may include altering job-application procedures, modifying the physical work environment, and permitting more flexible work schedules.Employers are not required to accommodate the needs of all workers with disabilities.For example, employers need not accommodate workers who pose a definite threat to health and safety in the workplace or those who are not otherwise qualified for their jobs.

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Who Should Decide When a Person With a Disability Is “Otherwise Qualified” for a Particular Job?

Who Should Decide When a Person With a Disability Is “Otherwise Qualified” for a Particular Job?

A significant issue concerning the ADA has to do with the determination of whether a person with disabilities is “otherwise qualified” for a particular job. Should a company be required to hire a person who is blind in one eye?Several federal courts believe “yes.”

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Defenses To Employment

Discrimination

Defenses To Employment

DiscriminationIf a plaintiff proves that employment discrimination occurred, employers may avoid liability by successfully asserting certain defenses.Employers may assert that the discrimination was required for reasons of business necessity to meet a bona fide occupational qualification to maintain a legitimate seniority system

Evidence of prior employee misconduct acquired after the employee has been fired is not a defense to discrimination.

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Affirmative ActionAffirmative ActionAffirmative action programs attempt to “make up” for past patterns of discrimination by giving members of protected classes preferential treatment in hiring or promotion.Increasingly, such programs are being strictly scrutinized by the courts.

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State StatutesState Statutes

Generally, the kinds of discrimination prohibited by federal statutes are also prohibited by state laws.However, state laws may provide for more extensive protection and remedies than federal laws.

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For ReviewFor Review1. Generally, what kind of conduct is prohibited

by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended?

2. What is the difference between disparate-treatment discrimination and disparate-impact discrimination?

3. What remedies are available under Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, as amended?

4. What federal acts prohibit discrimination based on age and discrimination based on disability?

5. Name three defenses to claims of employment discrimination.