Chapter 18

Thermal Properties of Matter

Dr. Armen Kocharian

Molecular Model of an Ideal Gas

The model shows that the pressure that a gas exerts on the walls of its container is a consequence of the collisions of the gas with the wallsIt is consistent with the macroscopic description developed earlier

Ideal Gas AssumptionsThe number of molecules in the gas is large, and the average separation between the molecules is large compared with their dimensions

The molecules occupy a negligible volume within the containerThis is consistent with the macroscopic model where we assumed the molecules were point-like

Ideal Gas Assumptions, 2The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion, but as a whole they move randomly

Any molecule can move in any direction with any speedAt any given moment, a certain percentage of molecules move at high speedsAlso, a certain percentage move at low speeds

Ideal Gas Assumptions, 3The molecules interact only by short-range forces during elastic collisions

This is consistent with the macroscopic model, in which the molecules exert no long-range forces on each other

The molecules make elastic collisions with the wallsThe gas under consideration is a pure substance

All molecules are identical

Ideal Gas Notes

An ideal gas is often pictured as consisting of single atomsHowever, the behavior of molecular gases approximate that of ideal gases quite well

Molecular rotations and vibrations have no effect, on average, on the motions considered

Molecular Properties of MatterForces between molecules

Cubic crystal structure of sodium chloride

Pressure and Kinetic EnergyAssume a container is a cube

Edges are length dLook at the motion of the molecule in terms of its velocity componentsLook at its momentum and the average force

Pressure and Kinetic Energy, 2Assume perfectly elastic collisions with the walls of the containerThe relationship between the pressure and the molecular kinetic energy comes from momentum and Newton’s Laws

Pressure and Kinetic Energy, 3The relationship is

This tells us that pressure is proportional to the number of molecules per unit volume (N/V) and to the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules

___22 1

3 2NP m vV

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞= ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠

Pressure and Kinetic Energy, final

This equation also relates the macroscopic quantity of pressure with a microscopic quantity of the average value of the square of the molecular speedOne way to increase the pressure is to increase the number of molecules per unit volumeThe pressure can also be increased by increasing the speed (kinetic energy) of the molecules

Molecular Interpretation of Temperature

We can take the pressure as it relates to the kinetic energy and compare it to the pressure from the equation of state for an ideal gas

Therefore, the temperature is a direct measure of the average molecular kinetic energy

___2

B2 13 2

NP m v Nk TV

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞= =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠

Molecular Interpretation of Temperature, contSimplifying the equation relating temperature and kinetic energy gives

This can be applied to each direction,

with similar expressions for vy and vz

___2

B1 32 2

m v k T=

___2

B1 12 2xm v k T=

A Microscopic Description of Temperature, final

Each translational degree of freedom contributes an equal amount to the energy of the gas

In general, a degree of freedom refers to an independent means by which a molecule can possess energy

A generalization of this result is called the theorem of equipartition of energy

Theorem of Equipartition of Energy

Each degree of freedom contributes ½kBT to the energy of a system, where possible degrees of freedom in addition to those associated with translation arise from rotation and vibration of molecules

Total Kinetic EnergyThe total kinetic energy is just N times the kinetic energy of each molecule

If we have a gas with only translational energy, this is the internal energy of the gasThis tells us that the internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on the temperature

___2

tot trans B1 3 32 2 2

K N m v Nk T nRT⎛ ⎞= = =⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠

Root Mean Square SpeedThe root mean square (rms) speed is the square root of the average of the squares of the speeds

Square, average, take the square rootSolving for vrms we find

M is the molar mass and M = mNA

Brms

3 3k T RTvm M

= =

Some Example vrms Values

At a given temperature, lighter molecules move faster, on the average, than heavier molecules

Molar Specific Heat, 2

We define specific heats for two processes that frequently occur:

Changes with constant pressureChanges with constant volume

Using the number of moles, n, we can define molar specific heats for these processes

Specific Heat, 3

Molar specific heats:Q = nCV ΔT for constant-volume processesQ = nCP ΔT for constant-pressure processes

Q (constant pressure) must account for both the increase in internal energy and the transfer of energy out of the system by workQconstant P > Qconstant V for given values of n and ΔT

Ideal Monatomic Gas

A monatomic gas contains one atom per moleculeWhen energy is added to a monatomic gas in a container with a fixed volume, all of the energy goes into increasing the translational kinetic energy of the gas

There is no other way to store energy in such a gas

Ideal Monatomic Gas, contTherefore, ΔΚint = 3/2 nR ΔT

ΔE is a function of T onlyIn general, the internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of T only

The exact relationship depends on the type of gas

At constant volume, Q = ΔΚint = nCV ΔT

This applies to all ideal gases, not just monatomic ones

Monatomic Gases, finalSolving for CV gives CV = 3/2 R = 12.5 J/mol . K

For all monatomic gasesThis is in good agreement with experimental results for monatomic gases

In a constant-pressure process, ΔKint = Q + W and CP – CV = R

This also applies to any ideal gasCo = 5/2 R = 20.8 J/mol . K

Ratio of Molar Specific HeatsWe can also define

Theoretical values of CV , CP , and γ are in excellent agreement for monatomic gasesBut they are in serious disagreement with the values for more complex molecules

Not surprising since the analysis was for monatomic gases

5 / 2 1.673 / 2

P

V

C RC R

γ = = =

Sample Values of Molar Specific Heats

Molar Specific Heats of Other Materials

The internal energy of more complex gases must include contributions from the rotational and vibrational motions of the moleculesIn the cases of solids and liquids heated at constant pressure, very little work is done since the thermal expansion is small and CP and CV are approximately equal

Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas

Assume an ideal gas is in an equilibrium state and so PV = nRT is validThe pressure and volume of an ideal gas at any time during an adiabatic process are related by PV γ = constantγ = CP / CV is assumed to be constant during the processAll three variables in the ideal gas law (P, V, T ) can change during an adiabatic process

Equipartition of EnergyWith complex molecules, other contributions to internal energy must be taken into accountOne possible energy is the translational motion of the center of mass

Equipartition of Energy, 2Rotational motion about the various axes also contributes

We can neglect the rotation around the yaxis since it is negligible compared to the x and z axes

Equipartition of Energy, 3The molecule can also vibrateThere is kinetic energy and potential energy associated with the vibrations

Equipartition of Energy, 4The translational motion adds three degrees of freedomThe rotational motion adds two degrees of freedomThe vibrational motion adds two more degrees of freedomTherefore, Eint = 7/2 nRT and CV = 7/2 RThis is inconsistent with experimental results

Agreement with ExperimentMolar specific heat is a function of temperatureAt low temperatures, a diatomic gas acts like a monatomic gas

CV = 3/2 R

Agreement with Experiment, cont

At about room temperature, the value increases to CV = 5/2 R

This is consistent with adding rotational energy but not vibrational energy

At high temperatures, the value increases to CV = 7/2 R

This includes vibrational energy as well as rotational and translational

Complex MoleculesFor molecules with more than two atoms, the vibrations are more complexThe number of degrees of freedom is largerThe more degrees of freedom available to a molecule, the more “ways” there are to store energy

This results in a higher molar specific heat

Quantization of EnergyTo explain the results of the various molar specific heats, we must use some quantum mechanics

Classical mechanics is not sufficientIn quantum mechanics, the energy is proportional to the frequency of the wave representing the frequencyThe energies of atoms and molecules are quantized

Quantization of Energy, 2This energy level diagram shows the rotational and vibrational states of a diatomic moleculeThe lowest allowed state is the ground state

Quantization of Energy, 3

The vibrational states are separated by larger energy gaps than are rotational statesAt low temperatures, the energy gained during collisions is generally not enough to raise it to the first excited state of either rotation or vibration

Quantization of Energy, 4Even though rotation and vibration are classically allowed, they do not occurAs the temperature increases, the energy of the molecules increasesIn some collisions, the molecules have enough energy to excite to the first excited stateAs the temperature continues to increase, more molecules are in excited states

Quantization of Energy, final

At about room temperature, rotational energy is contributing fullyAt about 1000 K, vibrational energy levels are reachedAt about 10 000 K, vibration is contributing fully to the internal energy

Molar Specific Heat of SolidsMolar specific heats in solids also demonstrate a marked temperature dependenceSolids have molar specific heats that generally decrease in a nonlinear manner with decreasing temperatureIt approaches zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero

DuLong-Petit Law

At high temperatures, the molar specific heats approach the value of 3R

This occurs above 300 K

The molar specific heat of a solid at high temperature can be explained by the equipartition theorem

Each atom of the solid has six degrees of freedomThe internal energy is 3 nRT and Cv = 3 R

Molar Specific Heat of Solids, Graph

As T approaches 0, the molar specific heat approaches 0At high temperatures, CVbecomes a constant at ~3R

Boltzmann Distribution LawThe motion of molecules is extremely chaoticAny individual molecule is colliding with others at an enormous rate

Typically at a rate of a billion times per second

We add the number density nV (E )This is called a distribution functionIt is defined so that nV (E ) dE is the number of molecules per unit volume with energy between Eand E + dE

Number Density and Boltzmann Distribution Law

From statistical mechanics, the number density is nV (E ) = noe –E /kBT

This equation is known as the Boltzmann distribution lawIt states that the probability of finding the molecule in a particular energy state varies exponentially as the energy divided by kBT

Distribution of Molecular Speeds

The observed speed distribution of gas molecules in thermal equilibrium is shown at rightNV is called the Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distribution function

Distribution FunctionThe fundamental expression that describes the distribution of speeds in N gas molecules is

m is the mass of a gas molecule, kB is Boltzmann’s constant and T is the absolute temperature

23/ 2

/ 22

B

( ) 42

Bmv k Tv

mf v N N v ek T

ππ

−⎛ ⎞= = ⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠

Most Probable Speed

The average speed is somewhat lower than the rms speedThe most probable speed, vmp is the speed at which the distribution curve reaches a peak

B Bmp

2 1.41k T k Tvm m

= =

Speed DistributionThe peak shifts to the right as Tincreases

This shows that the average speed increases with increasing temperature

The asymmetric shape occurs because the lowest possible speed is 0 and the highest is infinity

Speed Distribution, final

The distribution of molecular speeds depends both on the mass and on temperatureThe speed distribution for liquids is similar to that of gases

EvaporationSome molecules in the liquid are more energetic than othersSome of the faster moving molecules penetrate the surface and leave the liquid

This occurs even before the boiling point is reached

The molecules that escape are those that have enough energy to overcome the attractive forces of the molecules in the liquid phaseThe molecules left behind have lower kinetic energiesTherefore, evaporation is a cooling process

Phases of MatterPhase equilibriumTriple pointCritical pointSublimation

pVT-surfaces

18.7: From Eq. (18.6), C.503K776)cmPa)(4991001.1()cmPa)(46.210(2.821K)15.300( 35

36

11

2212 °==⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛××

=⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=

VpVpTT

18.15: a) C.70.3K343K)molatmL0.08206mol)(0.11(

L)atm)(3.10100(22 °==

⋅⋅==

nRVpT

b) This is a very small temperature increase and the thermalexpansion of the tank may be neglected; in this case, neglecting the expansion means not including expansion in finding the highest safe temperature, and including the expansion would tend to relax safe standards.

18.16: (a) The force of any side of the cube is ,)()( LnRTAVnRTpAF ===

since the ratio of area to volume is .K15.293C20.0For .1 =°== TLVA

N. 103.66 m 200.0

K) (293.15 K)molJ (8.3145 mol) 3( 4×=⋅

==L

nRTF

b) For K, 373.15 C00.100 =°=T

.N1065.4m200.0

)KK)(373.15molJ5mol)(8.3143( 4×=⋅

==L

nRTF