Chapter 2 4th ed

The Real WorldAn Introduction to Sociology

4th Edition

Chapter 2:Studying Social Life:

Sociological Research Methods

Overview of Research Methods

• 2 Broad types of research:– Quantitative research: translates the social world into

numbers that can be studied mathematically• Example: United States Census

– Qualitative research: uses non-numerical data like texts, interviews, photos, and recordings to help understand social life

• Example: Anne Frank’s Diary

• This applies to pretty much ALL social sciences including a variety of other fields such as education, criminal justice, business/marketing research, etc.

The Scientific Method

• Most sociological research uses the scientific method, which is the standard for acquiring and verifying empirical (scientific) knowledge. – Definition: The scientific method is a procedure for

acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting data through observation and experiment.

• It provides researchers with a series of steps to follow.

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The Scientific Method (con’t.)

• Before beginning actual research, the researcher will begin with a literature review – which is an overview of the research that has been done on your topic.


• Steps in the scientific method:– Form a hypothesis – a theoretical statement that will explain

the relationship between two variables. The researcher may also form a research question instead of a hypothesis.

– Define the variables– Predict possible outcomes– Collect data (surveys, interviews, observations)– Analyze the data– Report the findings

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• Correlation: a relationship between two variables

• Causation: a relationship where one variable causes another variable to change

• Spurious correlation: a relationship that seems to appear between two variables, but is actually caused by some external, or intervening, variable.


• Example: – In Florida, there are a lot of palm trees and a lot of senior

citizens. You want to examine the relationship between the variables.

– The variables in this case are palm trees and senior citizens. You see that in states with fewer palm trees, there are fewer senior citizens, and in Florida, where there are many palm trees, there are many senior citizens.

– Therefore, there is a relationship between the variables. Palm trees and senior citizens are correlated.


• Example: – Palm trees and senior citizens are correlated. Now, you want

to see if there are any causations. Do palm trees cause senior citizens?

– Well, you can conduct an experiment where you plant 100,000 palm trees in Ohio and monitor the population.

– Suppose you don’t see a difference in the number of senior citizens. In that case, you can tell that palm trees aren’t causing senior citizens. So what’s going on?

– There is a relationship, but it is not causal.


• Example: – You start to investigate further, and you realize that palm

trees like warm weather. Senior citizens also like warm weather.

– There was a third variable (temperature) that you didn’t think of at the beginning. This is a spurious correlation.

– There is a relationship between palm trees and senior citizens, but it is based on the fact that they both have a relationship with a third variable—temperature.

Paradigm Shifts

• Research can lead to what Thomas Kuhn called a paradigm shift, or a change in the way we think about some aspect of life.– For instance, we used to believe that the world was

flat, but new research gave us evidence that the world was actually not flat. That research led us to a paradigm shift in our thinking about the world.

Who are we studying?

• Other terms used by sociologists:– Target population – the entire group of people you

want to study (ex: community college students)– Sample – the part of the population that will actually

be studied. (ex: n=350 randomly selected students at Gadsden State Community College)

• It would almost be impossible to survey every community college student in the US.

12The Real WorldCopyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Methods: How Do We Gather Data?

• There are different ways to collect information about a topic, but each method has benefits and limitations.

• When beginning a research project, it is important to consider which method will work best.

Qualitative Research Methods -

Ethnography

• One way to collect to data is through ethnography, a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they give to their activities. – Also, the written work that results from the study is

also called ethnography.– Ethnography literally means “writing culture,” which

happens when researchers collect their observations and write about their experiences in a scientific way.



Ethnography• Ethnography Continued:

– Ethnography is often a two-part activity: active participation in and observation of a naturally occurring setting, and a written account (field notes) of what goes on there.

– In participant observation the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting.• “Overt” observations – most common• “Covert” observations – dangerous environments



Ethnography• Ethnography usually happens in two steps:

1. The researcher participates in and observes a setting.2. Then the researcher makes a written account (field notes) of

what goes on there.• It is important to take thorough and precise field notes when

conducting an ethnographic study. Leaving something out because “it doesn’t seem important” can result in incomplete data.

• Every detail is equally important, and recording these details properly allows the researcher to draw conclusions at the end of the study. Thus, writing field notes can be very time-consuming.

Qualitative Research Methods - Interviews

• Interviews involve direct, face-to-face contact with respondents, and often can generate large amounts of qualitative data. – The researcher identifies the target population that

she wishes to study, and then selects a sample of people to be interviewed from that population.



• A closed-ended question imposes a limit on the possible responses

• An open-ended question allows the answer to take whatever from the respondent chooses

• Avoid…– Leading questions– Double-Barreled Questions

• Analyzing the data is much like ethnography18

The Real WorldCopyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.


• A leading question is a question that suggests the particular answer or contains the information the examiner is looking to have confirmed. Their use is restricted in order to reduce the ability of the researcher to direct or influence the answers presented.

• For example, this question is leading:– Did you participate in the student protests on July 15?

• It suggests the location of the participant. The same question in a non-leading form would be:– Can you tell me where you were on July 15; the day of the student

protests?19


• A double-barreled question is when someone asks a question that touches upon more than one issue, yet allows only for one answer. – This may result in inaccuracies in the attitudes being measured

for the question, as the respondent can answer only one of the two questions, and cannot indicate which one is being answered.

– Examples: • "Please agree or disagree with the following statement:

Cars should be faster and safer."• "How satisfied are you with your pay and job conditions?"

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Qualitative Research Methods – Data Considerations

• Analyzing the Data– Reflexivity – how does the identity of the researcher

influence the surroundings?– Coding – Break down field-note data into categories –

look for patterns/relationships between the categories to form a theory.


Quantitative Research Methods

• Surveys are questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population. – Survey research tends to look at large-scale social

patterns and employs statistics and other mathematical means of analysis.

• Likert Scale – a way of organizing question categories on a survey question so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum.


Experimental Methods

• Experiments are formal tests of specific variables and effects that are performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled.


Experimental Methods (cont’d)

• Many experiments involve using an experimental group, which is the part of the test group that receives the experimental treatment, and a control group, which is the part of the test group that is allowed to continue without intervention so that it can be compared with the experimental group.


Experimental Methods (cont’d)

• A researcher will investigate whether an independent variable causes changes in the dependent variable.


Existing Sources

• Existing Sources refer to any data that has already been collected by earlier researchers and is available for future research. This can include sources such as census data, newspapers, photography, and cultural artifacts.

• Using existing data is usually less involved than collecting original data and also gives researchers access to distant places and times.


Issues in Sociological Research

• Non-Academic Uses of Research: The research methods described in this chapter are often applied outside the field of sociology. Some examples include the US Census, political campaign offices, business, and market research. Beware!


Issues in Sociological Research (cont’d)

• Objectivity: (not subjectivity) Most sociologists believe that they should not allow their personal beliefs to influence their research. (Leave out your biases) – Max Weber wrote the classic sociological statement

on this issue. He coined the phrase value-free sociology, an ideal whereby researchers identify facts without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases to interfere.


Issues in Sociological Research (cont’d)

• Ethics:– The American Sociological Association has developed its own

set of code of ethics to assist researchers avoid bias, adhere to professional standards, and protect respondents from harm.

– Anytime you work with human subjects – ethics are very important.

– Know the risks involved in your research– Confidentiality!!!!– Informed Consent– IRB’s (Institutional Review Boards)


Conducting Sociological

Research• The American Sociological Association has developed its own

code of ethics to help researchers avoid bias and adhere to professional standards and to protect respondents from harm.

• It is always important to consider the outcome of your study. – If you administer a drug, is there a possibility that someone could die? – If you ask questions about sensitive childhood memories, will the

respondent have a traumatic experience answering them?

• Adhering to the code of ethics helps you avoid situations that could potentially harm your respondents or even you yourself.

Conducting Sociological Research

(con’t.)

• Most universities where research is conducted also have an institutional review board, a group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects.

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Chapter 2 4th ed

Education