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THEME TWO

1. What were the developments during these 1500 years, after the phasing out

of the Harappan civilization?

1. Rigveda composed by people living along River Indus. Evidence from Inscriptions on iron pillars, stones, pottery and metal

plates, texts, coins and archtectural remains

2. Agricultural settlements in many parts of north and

deccan India.

Clearing of the denser forests in

Ganga Yamuna doab was possible only

with an iron axe and tools.

3. Iron age replaces the Copper and Bronze culture and red pottery of

Harappan.

Furnaces with higher temperatures were needed to melt iron.

Therefore, Polished Black Pottery emerged.

4. In Deccan and South India, evidence of pastoral settlements and megalith culture . Changes in disposal of dead , who were now buried with a range of

iron tools and weapons.

5. Evidence of early states called Janapadas, and 16 mahajanapadas, Ganas or sanghas called rajaya, empires. Political changes and new towns. Artisans guilds specialize in manufacture.

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2. Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions.

3. Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts were used for inscriptions.

4. Languages used were Pali, Prakrit, Tamil, Sanskrit.

5. Prakrit was the spoken language of the masses. Sanskrit was the language of

the elite.

1. Janapadas

16 Mahajanapada where large areas in which people of

one tribe settled permanently for agriculture. No

single person was the head

No single person or group was in control. Guild

system was prevalent for all professions that developed the

skills and trained youngsters.

2. Sangha

Was a smaller than mahajanapada. It

was a more closely knit tribe that had

not fully adopted to agriculture. Both

Mahavir and Buddha belonged to

ruling dynasty of their Sangha.

Headed by a king.

Vajji Sangha is recorded to have had a king who controlled resources on behalf of the tribe

3. Ganas

Were oligarchies. A small group controlled all resources and

made all decisions.

'Gana' means 'people' who could be counted. It was the smallest of the three groups and partly pastoral.

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Most frequently recorded of the 16 Mahajanapadas included

Questions at the end of the Chapter

Answer in 100 to 150 words:

1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In

what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?

Answer. Evidence of black polished pottery bowls and dishes, with a

glossy finish has been found from Early Historic Cities.

Ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines made of gold,

silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta have been

found. Inscriptions from a number of early cities tell about people

from various occupations, such as washing folks, weavers, scribes,

carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious

1. Vajji

2. Magadha

3.Koshala

4. Kuru

5. Panchala

6. Gandhara

7. Avanti

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teachers, merchants and kings. Craft production was organized in

guilds that procured raw material, regulated production and quality,

marketed the produce, paid taxes.

They differ from Harappan cities in the wider range of

products and organisation of production.

(101 words)

2. Describe the salient features of Mahajanapadas.

Answer. The Mahajanapadas had the following salient features:

a) They had clearly defined outer boundaries. With it a single tribe

with a common culture had settled to practice agriculture.

b) Each had a capital city as its seat of sangha or raja

c) The capital city was fortified by an outer wall and the main gates

were controlled.

d) Punch marked coins of metals were issued by the mahajanapadas.

e) There was an increasing use of iron and growth in trade and

commerce.

f) Each Mahajanapada had its own army to defend its borders and raid

its neighbours. The administration collected taxes and carried out

orders.

g) Mahajapadas named in Jaina and Buddhist texts include Vajji,

Magadha, Anga, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Vatsy, Matsya, Avanti

and Chedi.

h) Work was organized in artisan guilds. The guilds created work

norms and specialized in one form of art.

(144 words)

3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?

Answer. Historians reconstruct the social history of lives of ordinary

people through a variety of archeological and literary sources.

Inscriptions on rocks, stones, pottery, coins, sculptures and metal plates

convey the maximum information. The range of metals and materials

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used also convey the diversity of social life. How the raw materials

would have been obtained indicates the trade links to other places.

The quality of pottery indicates the growing distinction in society.

Harappan red pottery was of the same in quality. This continued in early

cities, when a new class of black polished pottery was found. This was

glossy artistic and limited in number. This indicates that it was expensive

and made only for the rich.

From inscriptions of early cities, historians know that washing folks,

weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials,

religious teachers, merchants and kings lived in these early cities. Craft

production was organized in guilds. (148 words)

4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief

(Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8).

Do you notice any similarities or differences?

Answer. As per Source 3 the Pandyan chief was given gifts of ivory,

fragrant wood, fans made of the hair of deer, honey , sandalwood, red

ochre, antimony, turmeric, cardamom, pepper, coconut, mangoes,

medicinal plants, fruits, onions, sugarcane, flowers. Areca nut,

bananas, baby tigers, lions, elephants, monkeys, bear, deer, musk

deer, fox, peacocks, musk cat, wild cocks, speaking parrots.

As per source 8 the Danguna village produced flowers and

milk, grass for animals and hides for seats, charcoal, salt, fermented

liquors, mining products, and khadira trees.

The similarities are that both lists include natural produce such as

flowers, tree products and animal based products. The differences are

that the Pandyan chief is gifted live animals as well and a wider range

of natural produce.

(123 words)

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5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.

Answer. The epigraphists have first to locate and interpret the

equivalent alphabets in the modern scripts with ancient scripts. Most

of the modern Indian scripts have been derived from Brahmi script in

which the edicts of Emperor Ashoka have been inscribed. The

assumptions made by epigraphists also matter. For example, the

earliest scripts are in Prakrit, but scholars assumed them to be in the

early version of Sanskrit, because most of the texts that have survived

were in Sanskrit. As such a wrong assumption can also become an

obstruction.

The script to be deciphered has also to be compared with other

ancient scripts. For example the Kharosthi script used in Ashoka

inscriptions in the North-west was similar to script on coins of Indo

Greek kings. Names of the kings on coins facilitated the deciphering

of Kharosthi, only after it was seen to be Prakrit and not Sanskrit.

(147 words)

Write short essays of about 500 words on the following:

6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these

elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?

Answer. The Magadha Mahajanapada emerged as the first empire in

ancient India under King Chandragupta Maurya. He extended his

control from Rajgir to Afghanistan and Baluchistan. His grandson,

Emperor Ashoka extended the empire further to Kalinga and beyond

into South. Such a vast empire needed a regular administration for its

functioning.

At first, militia was maintained for security of the king who lived

in a fortified settlement called ‘Rajagaha or Rajgir. This separated the

king and his administration from the people. As resources increased,

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standing armies began to be maintained and the capital city of

Magadha was shifted to Pataliputra.

Two main functions dominated the organisation of the

administration, one, collection of taxes and two, maintaining of the

army. The administration of the empire was organized into five major

administration centres mentioned in the rock and pillar inscriptions of

Ashoka.

These five centres were the capital city of Pataliputra, Taxila in

northwest, Ujjaiyini in southwest, Tosali and Suvarnagiri in the

southeast. These centres were on the major trade routes.

Communication through land and rivers routes was important. The

army maintained security on all channels of communications. Six

branches of administration coordinated all military activities, transport

and provisions for the army, and one each for foot soldiers, horses,

chariots, and elephants. Spies were an important part of the

administration and security of the empire. They were the only ones

authorized to meet the king at any time of the day or night. As they

reported directly to the king only, their role was secret.

Rock and pillar inscriptions have been found at places where

people gathered frequently such as transit points on rivers and roads.

Special persons were appointed as dhamma mahamatta to spread the

message of dhamma. One person was employed to read aloud the

dhamma messages on the inscriptions.

The inscription of Ashoka mention him as ‘King Ashoka’ and by

the term ‘Piyadassi’ that means ‘pleasant to behold or look at’. This

indicates that the Mauryan administration was headed by a King. The

inscriptions are mostly in Prakrit and a few are in Pali language, but

the script is Brahmi. Only in the north west Kharoshti script is used for

the inscriptions. This indicates Prakrit to be the language of the

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common people. ‘Ajatasattu’ as the ruler before King Ashoka is

mentioned. This shows that the kingship was dynasty based.

The inscriptions also convey that the king and his administration

collected taxes from the cultivators, traders, and artisans. Tributes were

collected from pastoralists and forest peoples.

In conclusion, it can be said that the administration was organized for

the purpose of security of the king and of the empire. The requirements

of army with its branches of horses, chariots, elephants, foot soldiers,

spies, were seen by special branches of administration. Similarly,

function of the river navy was organized. Roads and river routes of

transportation were created and maintained. The second major function

of administration was collection of taxes and tributes, The third

function was communication and propagation of Dhamma across the

empire. For this special officers were appointed and rock and pillar

inscriptions were created.

(515 words)

7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the

twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture and

activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.

Answer. Ashokan inscriptions are on natural rocks, part of which was

polished to inscribe the message. The second group of inscriptions is

on marble pillars.

The inscriptions were essentially a means of communication

between the ruler and the people. This is concluded from the fact that

the Prakrit and Pali that were the languages of the ordinary people

were used. The inscriptions were located on main routes and at places

where people gathered frequently for transit or trade.

All inscriptions taken together deal with various aspects of life,

because they convey the message of ‘Dhamma’ or dharma or faith

Ashoka’s Dhamma was based on the teachings of Gautam Budda who

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conveyed the ‘eight fold middle path’ for attaining ‘nirvana’ or

moksha from the cycle of rebirth. For this reason, Asoka as the ruler

attempted to communicate the truth of his faith to his people. He

sought their welfare in all forms, physical, financial and religious.

After his deep felt remorse at the loss of lives in the Kalinga war,

Ashokan inscription give details of the loss as well as the booty

captured and brought back to Pataliputra. In the earliest inscriptions the

communication with the people is political to convey the strength of

the Mauryan Empire.

The Dhamma messages on inscriptions, that deal with social

and economic activities come after his sense of remorse on realizing

that the military might is transitory. The change that came in his

mindset from a valorous king to a renouncer of violence is conveyed

through the inscriptions.

In the inscriptions, Ashoka is not referred to by name, but by

two titles of ‘dvanampiya’ meaning ‘beloved of the gods’ and

‘piyadassi’ meaning ‘pleasant to behold’. The inscriptions were

matched for content, style, language, and paleography it was concluded

that they were all inscribed by the same ruler.

(301 words)

8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan

period.

Answer. The chiefs and kings in the south who had become a

part of the Mauryan Empire during the reign of Ashoka, developed

new notions of kingship after Ashoka’s death.

During the post – Mauryan period, Tamilakam was the

region extending from present day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil

Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas

emerged as three separate and powerful kingdoms in this region.

The first new notion was that of the Chiefs and Chiefdoms. The

chief was a powerful man in a tribe or a group of villages. He

performed many functions such as special rituals, leadership in

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warfare, and settlement of disputes. He did not collect taxes but

received gifts from members of his chiefdom. He re-distributed these

gifts among his people. His post was not hereditary, and he did not

maintain any standing army or militia group.

In the present day Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and

Rajasthan regions of the Mauryan Empire, tribal chiefs of

Satavahanas and Shakas became prosperous as they carried out long

distance trade with Central Asia. Due to their prosperity, in the post

Mauryan period they were able to acquire political power and become

kings.

The second new notion was of ‘Divine Kings’. The status of

chief of a chiefdom was not hereditary. But as their wealth and

political influence grew, the chiefs began claiming higher status by

aligning themselves with various deities.

In the Tamilakam kingdoms, this led to the building of

temples and establishment of traditions of associating the temple deity

with the ruling dynasty through various rituals. This was possible

through donation of land for development of agriculture. Agriculture

was the prime source of revenue for these kingdoms. The

archeological sites of major dynastic temple complexes built by the

Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas, still exist.

In the Satvahana and Shaka kingdoms of western and central

Deccan, more forts were built than large temples because their

revenue came from long distance trade that needed to be protected.

In the north western parts of the former Mauryan empire, the

Kushan kingdom was established from Central Asia to north-west

parts up to Mathura region. Kushans traded and controlled the Silk

Trade Route trade and became prosperous. Their most important king

Kanishka, adopted the title of ‘devaputra’ or ‘son of god’, and built

colossal stone statues of himself in a shrine in Mat, near Mathura.

Statues of Buddha were built in present day Afghanistan region.

The third new notion was that of the ‘samantas’ who were

controllers of local land revenues and resources. Powerful samantas

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could become kings and kings could be dethroned to make them

subordinate samantas. The next empire to rise was the Gupta Empire

that had its beginning in a powerful Samanta.

(455 words)

9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period

under consideration?

Answer. During the post Mauryan period there was no

central authority to control or protect the ordinary people. Traders

and cultivators were attacked by robbers at night and by tax

collectors during the day. Therefore, many cultivators left their

village and began living in the forests.

Control by new kings and samantas, was uncertain and most

wanted to accumulate wealth as quickly as possible to become more

powerful. Therefore, they demanded very high taxes from cultivators

as well as traders. Trades left towns and villages or changed their

routes. As an increasing number of villages were abandoned, revenue

from agriculture dried up.

The frequently changing new kings and samantas therefore

began adopting new strategies to resettle the villages and increase

production. One of these was the use of iron plough in place of

wooden ploughs. The iron or iron tipped plough was better suited in

cultivating the thick alluvial soils in the valleys of River Ganga and

River Kaveri. Cultivation of paddy was introduced in river valleys

with a new method of transplantation. This increased agricultural

production in the river valleys but the semi- arid soil regions did not

adopt this new system.

Another new technology in agriculture was the starting of field

irrigation system through tanks and wells. Tanks were more popular

in the three kingdoms of Tamilakam region. This was because new

villages were created on land donated to temples. The tanks were

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constructed as a part of the new villages. Well irrigation was more

popular in other parts. Entire communities and richer individuals

organized the construction of irrigation works. The kings and more

powerful samantas have left metal inscriptions of such activities that

were undertaken as part of their faith.

(282 words)