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CHAPTER 2 GODS AND EMPIRES
IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST(1700-500 BCE)
Western Civilization IHIS-101
Rising Power of the Near East
The first half of the 2nd millennium BCE was a time of transition and constant warfare Numerous Indo-European tribes were moving into the
Near EastBy 1500 BCE, there were a number of major
powers rising in the Near East: The Hittites in Anatolia (Asia Minor) The Kassites in Babylon The Mittani in Syria The Egyptians The Mycanaean Greeks
Hittite Old Kingdom (c.1700-c.1500 BCE)
The Hittites were an Indo-European speaking people who moved into Anatolia around 2000 BCE
City-states were set up in central Anatolia These city-states remained independent until 1700
BCE The first Hittite kingdom was founded by
Labarnas I (1680-1650 BCE) He focused on uniting the Hittites in Anatolia through
force According to the Proclamation of Telipinu, he
“destroyed the lands, one after another - he overwhelmed the lands and made them borders of the sea… in his hand, too, the great cities were prosperous.”
Hittite Old Kingdom (c.1700-c.1500 BCE)
The kingdom expanded under Hattusilis I He ruled from c.1650–c.1620 BCE He expanded the frontiers to the Taurus Mountains to
the north and northern Syria to the southHe controlled trade routes as a way to
expand the kingdom’s economic capabilities Specifically he was looking for copper and arsenic
which was used in the production of bronzeHis reign was known as the “Kingdom of a
Thousand Gods” He accepted the customs, gods, and traditions of
regions that were incorporated into his kingdom
Hittite Old Kingdom (c.1700-c.1500 BCE)
Mursilis I (c. 1620–c. 1590 BCE) He continued on his grandfather’s success He expanded the kingdom further into Syria and even
into Mesopotamia He sacked the city of Babylon in 1595 BCE, leaving it
in ruins He was assassinated in a palace conspiracy
coordinated by his brother-in-lawThe Hittites then went into a period of
decline A number of Hittite cities survived until the invasion
of the Assyrians in the 8th century BCE
Early Assyrians (c.1700-c.1500 BCE)
The Assyrians had moved into Anatolia from Mesopotamia They created a vast trade network into region
The Assyrians did not seek military gains but had a profound impact in the region The became advisors to kings They also married into Anatolian families They brought Mesopotamian civilization to the region
Middle Babylonian Kingdom (1595–1185 BCE)
The Kassites moved into Mesopotamia during the 2nd millennium BCE Historians believe they had migrated from the Zagros
Mountains in Modern IranThey set up the Middle, or Second,
Babylonian Kingdom after the city of Babylon had been sacked by Hittites
We do not know much about them because of a lack of records from the time period
Mitanni Kingdom (1500-1360 BCE)
The Mitanni were an Indo-Iranian people whose kingdom centered in northern Mesopotamia
They were master horse trainers and brought in new innovations in warfare This included light, horse-drawn chariots that would
carry archers into battle They also developed excellent cavalry tactics
Kingdom went into a decline after a renewed attack by the Hittites The Hittites left the Mitanni Kingdom in tact to serve
as a buffer between them and the Assyrians
Hyksos and the Second Intermediate Period
(c.1650-1550 BCE)
Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BCE)
The Egyptian 13th Dynasty (1790-c.1650 BCE) was plagued by instability
Around 1720 BCE, the Hyksos invaded the delta region Their origins are unknown Called Hyksos, which was derived from heka
khasewet, meaning "foreign rulers" This led to more instability in the region
The nomes in Upper Egypt declared independence The Nubians to the south also broke free from
Egyptian control
Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BCE)
The Hyksos did make some cultural improvements for Egypt They introduced bronze as a new and improved metal
for making weapons and tools Made improved weapons such as a heavier sword and
a compound bow They also introduced horse-drawn war chariots
The Egyptians ended up using these new technologies to overthrow the Hyksos They were conquered by Amhose I, who started the
18th Dynasty
New Kingdom Egypt
New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE)
New Kingdom Egypt was composed of the 18th through 20th Dynasties
During this period, there were significant changes to the Egyptian style of government
There was a new militaristic attitude The New Kingdom was characterized by constant
invasions and war campaigns (“defense through offense”)
Even the pharaohs themselves were trained as military leaders and spent time on campaigns
This led to the rise of a new group: a war nobility consisting of war commanders who grew accustomed to working independently
New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE)
There was a loss of power for the pharaoh to three strong institutions: War Nobility - A new group that forged its respect on
the battlefield Royal Bureaucracy – With the pharaoh constantly on
campaigns, they experienced a tremendous growth in power
Priesthood – Receiving the gifts from conquered lands, the priests accumulated vast estates and slaves Became the chief landowners in Egypt
Thutmose III and Hatshepsut
New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE)
Eighteenth Dynasty - (1550-1292 BCE) – This is a period of Egyptian history that is categorized
by military expansion, imperialism and prosperity Time of some of the greatest and most powerful
pharaohs in historyThe dynasty began with the Amhose I (1550-
1525 BCE) He conquered the Hykos, reunified Egypt, and
brought Nubia back under Egyptian control
Thutmose I – (c.1504-1492 BCE)
Thutmose I – (c.1504-1492 BCE) During his reign, the Nubians rebelled and Thutmose
led a campaign to defeat them During the battle, the King of Nubia was killed and
supposedly hung from the prow of Thutmose’s ship He led campaigns even farther south, conquering land
as far as the Fourth Cataract He also drove to the Euphrates and into Syria and
Palestine He held more territory than any other pharaoh before
him
Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE)
Hatshepsut – (1473-1458 BCE)
Hastshepsut – (1473-1458 BCE) She had been Thutmose II’s Great Royal Wife When Thutmose II died, she became the regent for
Thutmose IIIIn 1473 BCE, she crowned herself pharaoh
She become the first female king Only two other women ruled in their own names
before her, but not as king She even adopted a Horus name, dressed in pharaonic
regalia (including a false beard), and was addressed as “His Majesty”
Hatshepsut – (1473-1458 BCE)
She had a very prosperous reign Her reign witnessed extensive building projects
including her temple at Deir el Bahri She sent trading expeditions down the Nile and to the
Red SeaThe cause of her death is was unknown until
very recently because there was no record of it Historians had proposed both natural causes and
murder In 2007, her mummy was positively identified by DNA
and the death was ruled to be caused by an abscessed tooth
Hatshepsut – (1473-1458 BCE)
Damnatio memoriae – “Erasing from history” After Hatshepsut’s death, many of her monuments
were either defaced or destroyedHistorians are mixed as to who and why
someone did this Some feel it was Thutmose III
They speculate that he did it either as revenge for her taking away his potential time to reign or as a way for him to legitimize his reign
Some feel it was his son Amenhotep II They speculate that he did it to legitimize his reign after
he was co-regent before his father’s death
Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el Bahri
Thutmose III (1479-1425 BCE)
Thutmose III – (1479-1425 BCE)
Thutmose III – (1479-1425 BCE) Considered one of the greatest pharaohs in Egyptian
historyHe conducted 17 military campaigns
He captured over 350 cities He conquered Syria and defeated the Mitanni He also expanded Egypt south as far as the Fourth
Cataract in NubiaHis reign was marked by numerous building
projects as well He constructed of over fifty temples
Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
Akhenaten - (1352-1336 BCE) He was originally Amenhotep IV (“Amun is Pleased”) He is best known for a massive religious upheaval in
Egypt and temporarily turning the country towards monotheism
Prior to his reign, the dominating deity in Egypt was Amun-Ra The was a combination of the local Thebian deity
Amun and the sun god Ra Worship of Amun allowed for other gods to be
worshiped as aspects of Amun (a sort of polytheism)
Worship of the god Aten
Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
Akhenaten, himself, followed Aten (the sun disc itself) as his main deity Aten could not be depicted as human so he was always
drawn as light or sun raysHe changed his name to Akhenaten (“the
effective spirit of Aten”) as part of this He build a new capital Akhetaten (“the horizon of the
Aten”) between Thebes and MemphisWorship of Aten was very different than Amun
under Akhenaten He recognized Aten as the only true god (monotheism) He closed down the temples of other gods
Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
Why did he switch away from Amun to Aten? Historians have debated the reasons why he did this
He may have been a revolutionary intellectual He broke the bounds of tradition (worshiping Amun-
Ra) by using insight and imagination to create a new cult of Aten
He may have been reactionary, upset by the blending of two gods, Amun and Ra, into one god
He may have just been a typical politician He wanted to weaken the strength and influence of
Amun’s priests by bringing in a new religious regime
Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
However, his attempt at religious change was a failure Most Egyptians were unwilling to change their beliefs. They saw the destruction of the old gods as undermining
to the cosmic order The priesthood of Amun put up strong resistance as well
Because Akhenaten was not interested in military affairs, he ignored a lot of foreign policy Many revolts broke out in Egyptian controlled lands He fell out with a number of important leaders in the
middle east, including the king of Mitanni All of this led to a loss of support by the military nobility
Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
During his reign, there was a serious pandemic that started in Egypt and spread throughout the Middle East It could have been the plague, polio, or influenza Some saw this as a sign that the cosmic order was
“out of whack” and blamed the pharaoh for thisIt is believed that Akhenaten’s failure at
religious change and foreign politics began the decline of the 18th Dynasty
Tutankhamun (1333-1327 BCE)
Tutankhamun (1333-1327 BCE)
He was originally named Tutankhaten (“living image of Aten”) It was later changed it to Tutankhamun (“living image
of Amun”)He was 9 years old when he took the throneHis main focus was to restore Amun as the
primary deity and bring back the old gods Akhentaten’s moments were destroyed and the
capital was moved back to Thebes
Tutankhamun (1333-1327 BCE)
During his reign, there was a continued decline in Egyptian power This was especially true in terms of foreign
relationshipsHis death is still being studied by scientists
Many thought he died from a blow to the head since there were cranial pieces in his brain cavity
Now it is being attributed to a leg injury that got infected with gangrene
When he died, he did not leave an heir This brought an end to the 18th Dynasty
International System
From 1500 to 1200 BCE, each of the empires of the near east developed a complex system of trade and diplomacy that tied each of them together
The main power centers during this time were: Egypt Hittite Empire Assyrian Empire Kassites in Babylon
International System
During this time, there was a move from military expansionism and war to a more stable, peaceful co-existence Leaders realized that wars were too costly It was more favorable for them to be at peace and
have trade channels openAs part of his diplomacy, leaders would
correspond with one another A standard set of written etiquette was used They would also exchange gifts and arrange
marriages to secure alliances
International Trade
Along with diplomacy, international trade flourished during this period
Countries were able to sell their goods in far markets People would crave these items and any type of
import was in high demandThe trade routes also allowed for the
transport of ideas as well Allowed for a greater understanding between the
cultures
International Trade
Along with greater integration of trade came greater dependence on goods from other countries They become mutually dependant on one another
economically This could be disastrous if one country’s economy
collapsedAs the international market spread, it
reached into less stable countries with unreliable partners and possibly more dangerous enemies
Minoan Crete
Earliest civilization in the Aegean region was found on Crete It is believed that Ancient Greek civilization had its
roots in Minoan civilizationMinoan civilization was first discovered by
Sir Arthur Evans when he uncovered the palace of Knossos in 1900 He named the culture “Minoan” after King Minos of
Greek myth Minos captured the minotaur and kept it under his
palace in a labyrinth, thought to be Knossos
Minoan Crete
Protopalatial Period (1900-1700 BCE) – Crete developed a bureaucratic administration There was a paved road network to connect the major
centersAround 1700 BCE, all of the palaces were
destroyed This was due to either earthquakes or foreign
invasionsNeopalatial Period (1700-1450 BCE) – The
palaces were rebuilt and new ones constructed Knossos was built during this time
Contained administrative and residential quarters with a total of over 1,300 rooms
Had indoor plumbing
Knossos from the air
A fresco inside Knossos
Minoan Crete
The Minoans did have extensive trade networks throughout the Mediterranean region They traded copper, tin, ivory, and gold with Egypt,
Asia Minor, Syria, and mainland GreecePrior to 1600 BCE, the Minoans were more
sophisticated that the mainland Greeks and had strong influence on the area They most likely dominated the Greeks culturally and
possibly politically
Minoan Crete
Starting around 1600 BCE, the Greeks started to come into their own Built fortified palaces which were designed after the
Minoan and Hittite palaces Became famous as mercenaries Transformed Minoan Linear A alphabet into their own
Linear B—the earliest Greek writingAround 1450 BCE, Minoan civilization
suffered a sudden and catastrophic collapse
Minoan Crete
Many historians believe that the collapse was due to invasions by the mainland Greeks
New evidence is coming about that the eruption of nearby Thera’s eruption in 1645 BCE may have played a part It produced deadly ash clouds that crippled cities and
fleets, and created tsunamis with waves up to 50 feet Set off climate change that ruined crops and led to
political unrest
Geography of Greece
The geography of Greece plays a very important role in the development of its history and culture
Greece has a long seacoast with numerous harbors This helped them develop into a seafaring people who could
easily trade with other civilizations in the Near East This allowed Greek civilization to spread
Much of interior consists of mountain ranges that surround small plains and river valleys The mountains isolated the Greeks from one another, which
meant that the communities would develop independently This led to rivalries between the small states because each
wanted to keep their style of independence
Mycenaean Greece
Mycenaean Greece – (1600-1100 BCE) This was Bronze Age Greece (pre-Hellenic Greece) This period set the foundations for Classical
(Hellenic) GreeceThe government was a theocracy
It was headed by a king, who was also a war leader Underneath him was a political and religious
aristocracy that ran the governmentIt was a warrior society
They prided themselves with their warrior deeds Artwork of the time included murals of hunting and
battle scenes
Mycenaean Greece
It is believed that the Mycenaeans expanded their territory through military means Homer’s Iliad supposedly describes such battles
including the Trojan Wars By 1400 BCE, they had invaded Crete and taken the
palace at KnossosAs a sea empire, the Mycenaeans were able
to develop impressive trade routes throughout the Mediterranean They traded with Egypt, Cyprus, and Asia Minor for
such goods as copper, tin, ivory, spices, and dyes
Mycenaean Greece
They also engaged in piracy There was a fine line between piracy and trade: they
raided if they could and traded if they could not raidBy the 13th century, the Mycenaeans were
showing signs of trouble There were internal conflicts between the cities By 1190 BCE, the city of Mycenae had been burned
down but was later reinhabited and then abandoned for good by 1125 BCE
By 1100 BCE, Mycenaean culture had ended
Mycenaean Greece
Historians debate the cause of the collapse of Mycenaean civilization Some argue that it was the Dorians, a less civilized
people from the north who invaded but there is no historical proof of this
Most historians believe that it was internal collapse caused by conflicts between the Mycenaean kings
Other factors, such as earthquake, drought, famine, and disease could have played a part
More recently, some historians think they were invaded by an unknown group called the Sea Peoples
The Sea People
The Sea People
In the 12th century BCE, a new group known as the Sea People was invading the Near East from the north Historians know very little about this group except
that they were from either Asia Minor or the Aegean region
Some believe that they were actually Mycenaeans fleeing the internal problems at home
They were most likely displaced refugees who were fleeing widespread crop failure and famine
The Sea People
Their path of destruction started in the north and may have contributed to the fall of Mycenaean Greece With this, they disrupted the highly developed trade
network of the Aegean regionThe remaining kingdoms had to face
overpopulation from the fleeing populations of Greece This led to widespread food shortages and warfare
They then moved into Anatolia and the Hittite Kingdom They sacked the Hittite capital at Hattusas and
quickly destroyed the empire
The Sea People
The Sea People worked their way down the eastern Mediterranean coast In the process they overtook and destroyed a number of
citiesThey eventually came in contact with Egypt
They first attacked Egypt during the reign of Merenptah (c. 1220 BCE) but were driven away
They attacked again during the reign of Ramses III (c. 1185 BCE) but were quickly defeated on land and at sea
One of the few reasons why we know of their existence is because of a depiction of the Egyptian victory in a relief in one of Ramses’ temples
Drawing of relief of the Sea People on Medinet Habu temple
The Sea People
The main outcome of the invasion of the Sea People was the almost complete destruction of Near East civilization Mycenaean Greece collapsed The Hittite empire was destroyed The Kassite empire in Babylon collapsed With the destruction of most of its trading partners
both Egypt and Assyria went into a long economic and political decline
The Sea People
The international system that had been slowly developed over the course of 500 years had been destroyed
In its wake, new governments and cultures rise Specifically in Assyria and Persia
There was also the development of a new metallurgical technology: iron This ushered in the Iron Age
The Assyrian Empire
During most of the 2nd millennium BCE, Assyria was not independent First they were a dependency of Babylonia and then
later of the Mitanni kingdom Their strength was in economic power than political
as they had established trade routes between Mesopotamia and Egypt
In 1362 BCE, the Mitanni were occupied with fighting the Hittites to the west This gave the Assyrians the chance to gain
independence
Assyrian Government
The kings ruled by absolute power The kings were also considered the earthly
representative of the god Assur This meant he was the head of the religion as well
The government was well organized It had an extensive bureaucracy comprised of
governors, priests, and military leaders The provincial governors collected tribute, recruited
for the army, and administered the lawIn conquered lands, Assyrians would be
placed in positions of power in those territories
Assyrian Government
They built roads throughout the empire The roads served not only for transportation but
communication as wellThey had an efficient system of
communication to help run the empire more smoothly They set up a network of posting stations that used
relays of horses to carry messages throughout the empire
It was so effective that a provincial governor anywhere in the empire could send a message to the king and receive an answer within a week
Assyrian Military Machine
Two key characteristics of the Assyrian military machine were: Holy war Reign of terror
As part of the holy war, Assyrian kings believed that their expansion was part of a divine mission and that it was the will of Assur Anybody who did not accept this was considered an
enemy and conquered
Assyrian Military Machine
As part of their reign of terror, the Assyrians would humiliate the other cities’ gods by capturing their statues and taking them hostage The conquered cities would also be forced to worship Assur
The Assyrians would even raid conquered areas every year to keep the subjects in place This was done to terrorize the people and to keep the military
in prime battle condition But this also improved the skills of the conquered people who
had no loyalty for the AssyriansTributes were paid in plunder
If the lands did not pay tribute, it would be extracted by force
Assyrian Military Machine
The Assyrian army held over 100,000 members It was well organized and disciplined Contained an infantry, cavalry, and horse-drawn war
chariots Had specialized units such as language interpreters,
intelligence officers, and scribes They were well-equipped with iron weapons and
armorBecause of this diversity, the army was able
to use a variety of military tactics depending on the geography of the area
Assyrian Military Machine
Warfare was savage Mutilations of prisoners, decapitations, rape, and the
mass deportations and/or enslavement of the civilian population was commonplace
The Assyrians were also masters of siege warfare They would hammer a city’s walls with heavy,
wheeled siege towers and armored battering rams Sappers would did tunnels to undermine the walls’
foundations and cause them to collapse Army would cut off supply lines so if the city did not
fall, they could be starved into submission
Assyrian Military Machine
Their ability to create a climate of terror as an instrument of warfare was highly effective They laid waste to the land they were fighting by
setting crops on fire, smashing dams, cutting down trees and destroying towns
Committed atrocities against the people but mostly against members of the empire who had rebelled against Assyrian rule
Deported many prisoners and used them for labor
Middle Assyrian Kingdom (1362-912 BCE)
Assur-uballit I (1362-1327 BCE), the governor of the city of Assur, started the Assyrian empire With the help of the Hittites he destroyed the Mitanni
and declared Assyrian independence Later in his reign, he allied with the Kassites in
Babylonia to end Hittite domination in the regionTukulti-Ninurta I (1243-1207 BCE) extended
the borders of the Assyrian empire through conquest He sacked the city of Babylon and took the Kassite
king into captivity
Middle Assyrian Kingdom (1362-912 BCE)
When the Babylonians rebelled against Tukulti-Ninurta, he ransacked the temples He also took the statue of the city’s patron deity,
Marduk, with him This was seen as sacrilege to both the Babylonians
and the Assyrians A mob led by his son murdered Tukulti-Ninurta by
setting his palace on fire and burning him to deathWhat followed was a long period of Assyrian
decline as Babylonia expanded in power
Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)
Neo-Assyrian Empire – (c. 911-609 BCE) During this time, Assyria emerged as a dominant
power in the Near EastAssurnasirpal II - (883-859 BCE)
He was a brilliant but brutal military leader who expanded the borders of the empire to the Mediterranean
He instituted a reign of terror where if a region did not pay tribute, the people were publicly tortured or killed
He reorganized the government placing Assyrians in power throughout conquered lands
He used captives from campaigns to rebuild the capital and to build temples and monuments
Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)
Tiglath-Pileser III (744-727 BCE) He seized the throne in 744 His first focus was subjugate Babylonia to the south Then he turned to the west where he expanded into
Syria and forced leaders to pay tribute or be attackedWhen he died, many of the newly conquered
lands revolted They were hoping that the pattern of weak rulers
following a death would continue
Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)
Sargon II (722-705 BCE) He took this name to link himself to the original
Sargon of Akkadia Founded the Sargonid dynasty This started one of the most magnificent periods in
Assyrian history When he took the throne, he had to maintain the
expansion of Tiglath-PileserHis descendents continued to expand the
Assyrian borders and became the dominant power in the Near East
Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)
Assurbanipal (669-627 BCE) – He was considered the last of the great rulers of
Assyria He was considered an “enlightened” king as he had
received a scholarly education since he was not first in line for the throne Built the great library in Nineveh, the first systematically
organized library in the ancient Near East The culture and art of the empire hit its peak during his
reign He continued to solidify and stabilize the empire
He used the same military tactics used by his predecessors
Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)
At the time of Assurbanipal’s death, the empire was at its peak The borders were secure and the realm was largely at
peace The realm was enjoying a period of cultural glory
By the end of the 7th century BCE, it was clear that the empire was greatly over-extended Overexpansion paved the way for internal strife
between nobles There was also a lot of resentment by the subjects
towards the Assyrians
Decline of the Assyrian Empire
Numerous groups throughout the empire began revolting
In the south, the biggest threat came from the Chaldeans They were were a Semitic-speaking people that had
grown in power by the 7th century BCEUnder the leadership of Nabopolassar (625-
605 BCE), the Chaldeans revolted in 626 BCE They allied with the Medes to capture and burn the
city of Nineveh down in 612 BCE
Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE)
Nabopolassar established a new monarchy in Babylonia This was known as the Neo-Babylonian Empire
Nebuchadnezzer (605-562 BCE) He achieved the final defeat of the Assyrian empire in
605 BCE He went conquer of Syria and Palestine He destroyed the city of Jerusalem, including the
temple Babylonian Captivity - Tens of thousands of Hebrews
were taken into Babylon in exile
Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE)
His reign marked a period of prosperity for the Babylonians Lucrative trading routes throughout Mesopotamia Created a lot of industry for textiles and metals
The city of Babylon became one of the greatest cities of ancient times He had built the Hanging Gardens, one of the seven
wonders of the ancient world He also had built temples and palaces
Artistic rendition of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon
The Persians
Very little is known about the Persians prior to the 6th century BCE They lived on the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf They were subject to the Medes They were organized into clans and were nomadic
Starting in the mid-8th century, both the Medes and the Persians began to form confederations of tribes
Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE)
Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE)
Cyrus the Great – (559-530 BCE) While he was a prince, he organized the Persians into
a single tribe in 559 BCE and made himself kingIn 549 BCE, he conquered the Medes
He made Media the first Persian satrapy or provinceHe then focused on the kingdom of Lydia in
Asia Minor Lydia was important because of its numerous gold
and silver mines It was also a vital location for trade between
Mesopotamia and the Aegean Sea
Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE)
King Croesus of Lydia saw that Cyrus was going to attempt an invasion So he made a preemptive attack against the Persians
but it failed By 546 BCE, Cyrus had occupied the capital of Sardis,
capturing the kingdom of LydiaWith Lydia conquered, Cyrus next focused on
the kingdom of Babylonia He was able to take Babylonia in 539 BCE with little
resistance He did this by negotiating with many generals and
Babylonian governors who were upset with the current Babylonian king, Nabonidus
Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE)
Cyrus turned Babylonia into a Persian satrapy but kept many Babylonians in positions of power
From 538 to 530 BCE, Cyrus concentrated on consolidating his empire He sought favor from the priesthoods in conquered
lands by restoring temples and allowing a large amount of religious toleration
Through his actions, he won approval of not only the Persians, but the Medes, Babylonians, and Jews who accepted him as the legitimate ruler
In 530 BCE, Cyrus was killed in battle
Persian conquests during the reign of Cyrus the Great
Cambyses (530-522 BCE)
Cambyses II - (530-522 BCE) He was one of Cyrus’ sons
In 525 BCE, he conquered Egypt Aided by the Phoenician fleet, he defeated and
captured the pharaoh and the Egyptian forces That summer he took the title of pharaoh
Cambyses died in 522 BCE Some believed he was murdered by his successor
Darius, others believe it was an accidental death Because he left no heir, after his death there was an
intense civil war that lasted for a year
Darius the Great (521-486 BCE)
Darius the Great (521-486 BCE)
Darius - (521-486 BCE) He started out as a bodyguard for Cambyses
Shortly after Cambyses die, Darius murdered Cyrus’ other son Bardiva According to Darius, Bardiya had actually been killed
by Cambyses He said that the Bardiya he killed was an imposter
who had usurped the throne after Cambyses’ death According to some historians, Darius had invented
this story to justify him murdering BardiyaDarius then seized throne for himself
He claimed hat he was restoring the kingship to the rightful house of Achaemenid
Darius the Great (521-486 BCE)
During the early part of his reign, revolts broke out throughout the empire This was because many disputed his claim to the throne Darius was able to suppress these revolts
Once Darius had secured the throne, he worked to strengthen the empire both from the inside and out He reorganized the government and bureaucracy He expanded the empires infrastructure, including roads
and a “postal” system He conquered territories to both the east in India and to
the west into Europe He reorganized the empire into new satrapies
Darius the Great (521-486 BCE)
He continued Cyrus’ policy of tolerance throughout his empire In most cases, the locals were able to retain many of
their institutions, including religious toleration He allowed the Hebrews to rebuild the Temple in
JerusalemHe developed a postal system
A “post” acted as a relay stage, with no more than one day’s ride from the next post
Part of this postal system included an extensive spy network that would inform the king of what was taking place throughout the empire
Darius the Great (521-486 BCE)
Darius built the “Royal Road” It went from Susa in the Persian Gulf to Sardis on the
Aegean Sea and was over 1,600 miles longHe codified a legal system based on
Egyptian lawHe standardized coinage, weights, and
measures This was to help promote trade and boost the
economy within the empireHe even reorganized the military
The military was composed of people from all parts of the empire and constituted a large fighting force
Darius the Great (521-486 BCE)
“Immortals” – Elite infantry force of 10,000 Called the “Immortals” because the number never fell
below 10,000 (if one died he was immediately replaced) Enjoyed special privileges including having concubines
and servantsThe military also included a cavalry
It was used behind the lines to break up lines of communication and shoot arrows and spears into enemy troops
The Persian navy included ships from conquered states, such as the Phoenicians, Anatolians, and Egyptians
Darius the Great (521-486 BCE)
With his military, Darius expanded the borders of Persia even farther He conquered parts of India to the east and into
Thrace and Macedon to the west He had control of the straights into the Black Sea This meant he also had control of the grain trade
coming through themBy 500 BCE, Darius was in control of most of
the Near East
Persian Religion
Another major contribution the Persians made was in terms of religion
Prior to the 6th century BCE, Persian religion focused on the worship of the powers of nature Including the sun, moon, wind, and fire The priests were called Magi
During the 6th century BCE, Persians began to follow Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism
Zoroaster – (c.628-c.551 BCE) He was a Persian holy man who experienced spiritual
revelations while spending time in solitude This revelations included believing in one god
(monotheism) and the elimination of animal sacrifice and magic
Ahura-Mazda – “the wise lord” – This was Zoroaster’s one supreme god He embodied all that was good, including righteousness,
truth, and piety He created all good things
Ahura-Mazda embodied only the good, how do you explain the bad?
Zoroastrianism
Zoroaster believed that there was an evil “counter-deity,” Ahriman Ahriman was the creator of all things evil This explained the evil of the world
Zoroaster said that Ahura-Mazda gave humans free will to choose between right and wrong There would be a constant struggle between good and evil in
which good will winZoroaster believed in individual judgment at death
If a person had done good deeds in their life, they would go to paradise
If they did not, they would go to a sort of hellZoroastrianism was able to spread so widely
because it was adopted by many of the great Persian kings
The Levant
The Levant
The Levant is an area encompassing the section of the western Mediterranean It is bordered on the north by the Taurus mountains,
on the east by Mesopotamia, and the south by the Arabian Desert
There are three civilizations that develop in this region during this period: The Phoenicians The Philistines The Hebrews
The Phoenicians
The Phoenicians lived in modern day Lebanon and Syria They arrived in the area around 3000 BCE and
probably came from the Persian Gulf regionThey were best known as traders and
colonizers in the Mediterranean in the first millennium BCE
The name Phoenicia in Greek means “purple people” This was derived from the valuable purple-red dye,
Tyrian purple, which was made from the Murex snailThe high point of Phoenician power and
culture was between 1200-800 BCE
The Phoenicians
Prior to 1200 BCE, many Phoenician cities had been controlled by Egypt While under Egyptian rule, some of the cities had already
established themselves as commercial centersAround 1200 BCE, the Egyptians along were
attacked by the Sea Peoples This led to a decline of Egyptian power
The Phoenician cities were then able to prosper This was due to expansion of trade routes and
accumulation of wealth The city of Byblos became the center of papyrus trade,
and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world
The Phoenicians
The Phoenician cities were independent city-states The government was controlled by the king, the temple with
its priests, and a council of eldersAs a massive sea power, they were able to build
colonies throughout the Mediterranean Small colonial cities were built throughout the
Mediterranean to act as “stepping stones” to Iberia By the 9th century BCE, they had established the city of
Carthage in Tunisia This would become a preeminent power in the western
Mediterranean There is evidence that merchants did travel up through
France and into Britain
The Phoenicians
The main impact the Phoenicians had on western civilization was the development of their writing system It was created at Byblos They had modified the Hittite 30 character alphabet
to create a 22 character writing system This alphabet was later adapted and modified by the
Greeks, Romans, and HebrewsThe Greeks also later adapted the boat
designs used by the Phoenicians
The Philistines
The Philistines dominated the Levant from 1100-1000 BCE
They were descended from one of the tribes of the Sea People They settled in this region after being repulsed by the
Egyptians According to the Bible, their roots seem to be tied to
either Crete or Anatolia According to archaeology, they do have a Mycenaean
past since they brought olive trees and grapevines to the Levant
The Philistines
Once settled in the Levant, the Philistines grew olive trees and grapevines
The Philistines then used their profits to raise armies to secure their power in the region They were effective mercenaries and quickly took
power from their weaker, unorganized neighbors They also dominated the region economically by
organizing production and controlling the trade routes
The Philistines
They also established a monopoly over iron-smithing Historians believe they learned this skill while in
Anatolia They made it impossible for anybody else to forge
their own weaponsUnfortunately, the Philistines left no written
records Our history of them is dependent upon the Hebrew
histories These are most likely biased against them since the
Philistines were their enemies
The Hebrews
Unlike the Philistines, the Hebrews wrote a history of their land This later became the Hebrew Bible and the Old
Testament of the Christian BibleHowever, it was written over the course of
many centuries Because of this, it should not be viewed in the same
way modern histories are written The Bible does give a fascinating look into the
culture, religious practices, and major historical events at the time
The Hebrews
Many of the works in the first five books of the Bible seem to be retelling of old Near East stories Creation and flood stories have ties to Sumerians The story of Moses’ childhood is a retelling of Sargon’s
childhood After that, the information becomes more credible
In the Book of Judges, the Hebrews started out as wandering pastoral tribes They settled permanently by 1200 BCE They were organized into 12 tribes with each being ruled
by a judge These tribes formed a rough territory that in the north
became known as Israel and in the south Judah
The Hebrews
They settled in the Levant roughly the same time the Philistines did which led to much tension
The Philistines conquered the Levant by 1050 BCE This forced the Hebrews to unite together to defend
themselves This led to the crowning of the first king of Israel
Saul (c. 1021-1000 BCE) Appointed by one of the tribal judges, Samuel, and by
public acclamation He did win significant victories over the Philistines
and succeeded in driving them out of the central hill country
Saul (c. 1021-1000 BCE)
However, Saul lost favor with Samuel This was due to either religious or military reasons By losing favor, he lost the religious sanctions for his
battles Because of this, Saul also lost popular support
Samuel then put his backing behind one of Saul’s lieutenants named David Saul had numerous assassination attempts against
David and finally expelled from courtDavid became an independent mercenary
fighter He received the city of Ziklag from the Philistines He used the profits from raids to help the other
leaders break free of Saul’s control
David (c. 1000-973 BCE)
Saul and his son Jonathan were killed in battle against the Philistines David took the throne with their deaths
David - (c. 1000-973 BCE) He was able to defeat the Philistines, pushing them
back to a small strip of land to the southPart of his conquests was the capturing of
Jerusalem He made Jerusalem the political and religious capital
of Israel He placed the Ark of the Covenant in the city
Solomon (973-937 BCE)
Solomon - (973-937 BCE) He was David’s son He continued to strengthen royal power during his
reign, but he did so through ruthlessness and brutality
He is best known for his building projects Included the temple to house the Ark of the Covenant Large palace with state offices Many of his subjects were required to perform forced
labor for four months out of the year
Solomon (973-937 BCE)
He expanded Israel’s trading system through the building of a commercial fleet This brought in new riches into Israel However, he imposed an oppressive taxation system
which included duties on the caravan trade into the country
Built up both a large standing armyDuring his reign, ancient Israel was at the
height of its power, but Solomon did so at the cost of angering the people
When he died, he son Rehoboam He planned on keeping up the harsh policies of his
father
The Divided Kingdom
In 922 BCE, Jeroboam led a rebellion in northern Israel against Rehoboam The Kingdom of Israel broke away from Judah
The kingdom was now divided into two parts: Kingdom of Israel - Composed of ten of the original
twelve tribes with its capital in Samaria It was eventually destroyed in 722 by the Assyrians
Kingdom of Judah - Composed of the other two tribes and had its capital at Jerusalem It was conquered by the Chaldeans in 586
Hebrew Monotheism
The early Hebrews worshipped many gods, including those involved with nature Yahweh was only one gods worshipped by the Hebrews In the Old Testament there are references to other gods
being on the same level as YahwehStarting around the 10th century BCE,
Hebrews began worshiping Yahweh more than the other gods They worshiped only one god They believed in the existence of other gods but refused
to worship them (monolatry) Yahweh was not considered to be omnipotent; instead his
“territory” was limited to lands occupied by the Hebrews
Hebrew Monotheism
By the 8th century, Hebrew theology became more abstract Priests saw Yahweh not a part of nature but outside of
it He was considered more omnipotent
Also during this time, Yahweh also transformed into a nicer god He went from a temperamental and easily angered or
annoyed god to a more loving, nurturing one For example, in the original Babylonian flood story,
the god was angered because human noise disturbed his sleep
Hebrew Monotheism
During the period of Assyrian domination, Hebrew religion was forced to change The northern tribes were deported into the interior of
the Empire (the Ten Lost Tribes), while the Kingdom of Judah became a vassal state to the Assyrians
The Assyrians also forced all those conquered to worship their god, Assur
The Hebrews realized that in order for them to retain their identity as a people, they needed to separate themselves from other groups They did this by worshipping Yahweh as being the
only god
Hebrew Monotheism
The Neo-Babylonians were an even greater threat to the Hebrews The Chaldeans were the ones who conquered Jerusalem
and destroyed the Temple there and the Babylonian ExileOnce again, their religion had to adapt
The prophet Ezekiel stated that states, empires, and thrones were not important
What mattered that was that God created man in his image and the relationship between God and His people
This meant that Judaism became a universal religion, not one tied to any particular political entity or a place
Hebrew Monotheism
Many scholars feel that this adaptation of religion helped Judaism survive such a long exile from its holy land
In 538 BCE, Cyrus of Persia allowed the Hebrews back into Jerusalem He helped rebuild their temple
With their return to the Holy Land, their worship of Yahweh continued They believed that humans had obligations to their
creator rather than it having ties to a place or political entity continued