Chapter 2

Artifact # 1

Giving ExplanationsThe Task:

High school students were asked to write an explanation of Thanksgiving for a 6th grade student. The goal of the task was to see how the students selected information to include and what they thought constituted a good explanation. They were then asked to comment on whether the task was hard.

This is how two high school students responded:

Student #1:

In 1620, the Pilgrims came over from England and landed on Plymouth Rock. They rode on a ship called the Mayflower all the way across the Atlantic Ocean. When they landed there, they discovered native people living on the land that is now known as New England. These people we call now are Native Americans because they originally lived in this area. The Native Americans were very friendly towards the Pilgrims. They taught the Pilgrims various skills and ways to get food. The Pilgrims were very prosperous as a result, and they decided to celebrate with a huge feast with lots of food. The Pilgrims invited the American Indians to give thanks for all their help. They feasted for three days! There were foods there like turkey, corn, potatoes, and other foods that we still eat today. So, Thanksgiving is a time where families and friends get together to give thanks for all the good things in life.

Student # 2:

When the Pilgrims crossed the Atlantic Ocean in 1620, they landed on the rocky shores of a territory that was inhabited by the Wampanoag Indians. These Indians lived in villages along the coast of what is now Massachusetts and Rhode Island. They lived in round- roofed houses called wigwams. These Indians of the Eastern Woodlands called the turtle, the deer and the fish their brothers. They respected the forest and everything in it as equals. The Wampanoags also treated each other with respect. Any visitor to a Wampanoag home was provided with a share of whatever food the family had, even if the supply was low. This same courtesy was extended to the Pilgrims when they came to the Indian territory in 1620 on the ship, the Mayflower. The Pilgrims were a small group of Puritans: people who believed that they were religiously "chosen ones" of God. After a year of trading skills, crops, and land between the Pilgrims and the Indians, the Pilgrims decided to have a thanksgiving feast to celebrate their good fortune. For three days the Wampanoags feasted with the Pilgrims. It was a special time of friendship between two very different groups of people. The holiday Thanksgiving is still celebrated today, on the last Thursday in November. It is a day for remembering and giving thanks for family,

friends, and the wonderful things we have as Americans...and of course, for eating lots of turkey!!

Now read each writer’s analysis of his/her own work:

Student #1:

I wasn't quite sure about all the events of Thanksgiving and the circumstances leading up to the feast between the Native Americans and the Pilgrims. Also, being that it was a 6th grade class, it seemed like you had to make it a happy and pleasant tale. This may not have been true because the Pilgrims were taking over their land and the Native Americans weren't happy about this. So, I just tried to keep it simple, with the few details that I could remember about Thanksgiving.

Student # 2

As I sat here and thought about Thanksgiving I realized that I only had a fragmented, incomplete story to tell. I can't remember when the last time I was asked to describe what Thanksgiving is and so to try and remember the correct, chronological story with factual references was very difficult. I had to look up a lot of information.

You Evaluate…1. If you were teaching this lesson, would you use these explanations? Why or

why not?2. In chapter 2, the authors invest a great deal of time discussing how teachers

plan effectively. Based on these explanations, have the writers planned effectively? If not, what would you do differently in your classroom?

3. Have the writers included a sufficient account of Thanksgiving? Where might you go to get further information?

4. How will you evaluate if your explanation is sufficient?

Lets consult the experts: 1. Probably not. Most 6th grade students will be familiar with Thanksgiving, so it

may be advantageous to begin your lesson by assessing students’ prior knowledge. My colleague advocates the use of ChalkTalk, an exercise in which the teacher writes a topic in the middle of the blackboard and then asks students to write one word or phrase that comes to mind when they think of this topic. Then the class spends time discussing the information students list on the board. Regardless of the instructional technique you choose, assessing prior knowledge will inform you of what your students know, any misconceptions they may hold, or gaps in their knowledge. Equipped with this knowledge, you will be able to adapt your explanation to build on students’ prior knowledge.

2. While it is difficult to assess their planning skills given such a small piece of their overall lesson, the writers fail to do two very important things. First, the writers fail to take into account their audience. The first writer’s explanation is overly

simplistic while the second writer’s explanation is probably more appropriate for high school students. Furthermore, both writers fail to include additional information (that they may or may not share with students) to accommodate students with special needs or from different cultural backgrounds who may need further elaboration or who have different interpretations of your explanation. The second thing the writers could do to improve this lesson, is to focus less on the details of Thanksgiving, and instead consider the broader curriculum standards and specific learning objectives that they expect their students to take away from this lesson. For example, a standard may require students to “Examine the interactions between Native Americans and European settlers, such as agriculture, trade, cultural exchanges, and military alliances and conflicts.” Clearly, this standard is applicable to a unit on Thanksgiving, and as a teacher, you will want to provide students with enough information to meet this standard, as well as create different types of experiences and activities to reinforce their learning.

3. There are a variety of online resources available with advice about how to present sensitive and sometime inconsistent historical accounts to students. You may also want to double check with a supervisor or another teacher who has performed a similar lesson to get their advice. Curriculum guides have ideas; colleagues and supervisors have suggestions; and veteran teachers offer guidance on the Internet. As a teacher, you will need to make intelligent choices among the options, try them out, and reflect on the results obtained for purposes of expanding and refining your knowledge and practice.

4. A key element in effective teaching is being able to explain at the level that students can understand, and how will you know if students understand unless you include methods of evaluating your teaching. Evaluations can come in several forms. Traditionally, we think of student assessments (e.g. tests) as a means to evaluate our teaching methods and student understanding. You may also include informal assessments such as group discussions or projects. Finally, teachers can learn a great deal about the effectiveness of their teaching by spending time reflecting on their experiences.

Chapter 3

Artifact # 1

Using a Formal Operation to Solve a Problem

The Task:

Meet Mr. Smallie and Mr. Tallie. This pair plays an important role in the Piagetian activity to assess the presence versus absence of adolescents’ formal operation of proportional reasoning. Students are told the following:

Look first at Mr. Smallie. If we measure Mr. Smallie’s height using these large interlocking paperclips, we find that he is 6 large paperclips tall. If we measure Mr.

Smallie’s height using these small interlocking paperclips, we find that he is 9 small paperclips tall. Now, let’s look at Mr. Tallie. If we measure Mr. Tallie’s height using these large interlocking paperclips, we find that he is 8 large paperclips tall.

1. How many small paperclips tall would you expect Mr. Tallie to be?2. Are you sure of your answer, or does it feel mostly like a guess?3. Can you explain why you guessed that many small paper clips for Mr. Tallie?

This is how two students responded:

Student #1:

11. I think it’s 11. I mean, since Mr. Smallie was 3 small paperclips taller, Mr. Tallie will be about 3 small paperclips taller too—so, 11.

Student #2:

12. 12 is the correct answer. I can prove it, too: If 6 / 9 = 8 / x; then 6x = 72; and x = 12.

You Evaluate…

Mr. Smallie

Mr. Tallie

Smallpaperclips

Largepaperclips

1. Review the section on formal operations in the text. What are the characteristics of formal operational thinkers?

2. In your opinion, have both students developed formal operational thinking? Why, or why not?

3. What role do teachers play in the development of formal operational thinking?

4. What are the implications of teaching this subject matter to students who have not reached formal operational thinking? Are there techniques educators might use to supplement students lack of formal operational thinking?

Lets consult the experts! 1. A caveat of formal operational thinking is that individuals are able to reason

hypothetically about unseen possibilities. In doing so, they are able to generate hypotheses, and they think logically and systematically about hypotheses, ideas, and possibilities. Furthermore, these formal operational thinkers are able to systematize their ideas, as well as construct theories and test them scientifically and logically. In this sense, thinking can be independent of concrete reality. For example, actors say, “Break a leg”; parents say, “Money doesn’t grow on trees”; and television sportscasters say, “That ball was a frozen rope.” According to Piaget, formal thinking involves four major aspects

1.      introspection (thinking about thought)2.      abstract thinking (going beyond the real to what is possible)3.      logical thinking (being able to consider all important facts and ideas to form correct conclusions)4.      hypothetical reasoning (formulating hypothesis and examining the evidence for them)

2. It is clear that only the second student exhibits formal operational thinking. The first student is in the concrete-operational stage in that he uses a trial-and-error approach to solve the problem. In doing so, he appears to search haphazardly (unsystematically) for a solution. In contrast, the second student applies a systematic approach to solve the problem. With the formal operation in mind, the second student knows the answer and can explain why it is correct.

3. Research suggests that the development of formal operational thinking is not automatic. However, teachers can create cognitive challenges in school that facilitate cognitive growth. There are numerous examples in algebra (e.g., solve for x in the following equation: 8 = 2x – 2), science (e.g., the pendulum problem), literature (e.g., interpreting imagery, satire, metaphors), and politics (e.g., what would happen if a country’s political structure changed from socialism to capitalism?). As such, teachers and schooling can clearly help students develop their formal-operational thinking (De Lisi & Staudt, 1980; Fischer et al., 1990),

4. If students are not yet formal operational thinkers, you can see how certain activities are going to be difficult for them. On the other hand, you can also see why these activities would be good for them to participate in, as they can help them develop and enrich their formal operational thinking. One way of integrating Vygotsky’s sociocognitive theory with Piaget’s cognitive theory is to apply

scaffolding techniques to support students as they work through challenging problems. Clearly, student #1 may have been able to arrive at the correct solution had a more capable other provided the correct scaffolds along the way.

Chapter 3

Artifact #2

Second-Language LearningThe Task:

If you were a student in a Korean (rather than American) school, this is what the daily conversation might look like to you:

The words above are pretty tough to make sense of, aren’t they?(The translation is: Line 1: Do you understand?

Line 2: No, I don’t understand.Line 3: Please say it once more.)

Lets evaluate!

1. What is the purpose of including this example? 2. Review the section on language development in your text. As a teacher, you

can provide short term and long term instructional support to English Language Learners (ELL). What practical and immediate approaches can you take to assist ELL students in your classroom?

3. What are some more long- term techniques teachers can use to help ELL students?

Lets consult the experts!

1. This example serves as a reminder of how difficult it is for students who speak a language other than English at home and for non-native English speaking children who are learning to read English (i.e., English is a new language). These students will mostly likely see written English in as mysteriously a manner as you see the Korean words written here. Learning a language, including learning a second language, is a very difficult undertaking. If you were asked to learn Korean, how difficult would school be for you? Reading and understanding are difficult when you can’t tell where the words and sentences begin and end. So, when teaching

students to read and when teaching second-language learners in your classroom, remember the mysterious-looking symbols written above.

2. As a teacher here are some practical and immediate approaches can you take to assist ELL students.

a. Use synonyms to clarify the meaning of unknown words.b. When necessary, use the student’s native language to convey a word or

concept that he/she does not understand, but then continue in English.c. To make English more comprehensible, use concrete materials, visuals,

and body-language cues.d. Paraphrase questions and statements to allow for different levels of

proficiency.e. Let all students know that there is nothing wrong with an accent, perhaps

by playing a recording of famous people with accents.f. Ask the student to interpret some communication or text that is in his/her

native language for the rest of the class, therefore showing the value of being bilingual.

3. Long- term instructional approaches developed for ELL focus on using social interaction to help students learn English. Social interaction—not just exposure to speech—has been shown to benefit ELL the most, while passive reception of language, such as when watching television has been shown to be relatively ineffective (Snow et al., 1976). Learning to speak any language is largely a task of learning to hear the new language in a way that allows for comprehension; thus, the quality of the language input is critical to learning a new language (Padilla, 2006). In this spirit, the role of the teacher in helping students learn language is to provide, first, high-quality language input that invites active listening and, second, opportunities for language learners to interact socially. As a teacher you can:

a. Provide explicit language decoding activities, such as an alphabet activity or handwriting practice to facilitate letter–sound connections

b. Teach phonics, as by introducing a letter, saying what the letter stands for, and inviting children to repeat the sound

c. Paraphrase what the child says and add simple elaborationsd. Interact with children in a conversational manner about objects and events

that have their attentione. Provide pauses in conversations to give children opportunities to generate

language, rather than just be exposed to language

Chapter 4

Artifact #1

Psychosocial Developmental Crises

Latisha and Jill are two students in your 7th grade history class. During a collaborative learning exercise, you overhear the following conversation between the girls:

You recall from your Educational Psychology course that Latisha’s words illustrate core psychosocial development issues that many students face on a daily basis. You decide that you want to help. First, you refer to your educational psychology book for assistance interpreting Latisha’s statements. Consider:

1. You locate the term psychosocial development and realize that it contains three elements: psycho, social, and development. Can you think of which parts of Latisha’s statements represent the psycho, social, and developmental aspects of this term?

2. To prepare for the meeting, you reread the section in the text on developing high-quality relationships. What do you learn that will help you facilitate the discussion between Latisha and Jill?

3. You decide to make a list of actions that will show Latisha and Jill that you relate to and support their autonomy during the discussion. What will be on your list?

Lets consult the experts!

1. Recall that psycho represents one’s sense of self. When Latisha states, “I needed you” it serves as an indication of her need for Jill’s help. The social element refers to the quality of the relationships in a one’s life. When Latisha states, “You weren’t there for me” it suggests that she does not feel part of a supportive relationship. Finally, development represents the extent to which one’s social development thrives or flounders. When Latisha states, “Now, I’m upset and don’t feel I can trust you anymore,” it is an indication of the consequence of Jill’s actions. While this analysis provides you with insight into Latisha’s feelings, you realize that you will need to continue your research in order to support high-quality relationships in your classroom and resolve this conflict. While you consider a number of options, you decide to facilitate a peer mediation process so both students have an opportunity to discuss their feelings.

“Jill, I needed you. I really needed you. You weren’t there for me. Now, I’m upset and don’t feel I can trust you anymore.”

2. You learn that students have many developmental needs (e.g. trust, initiative, competence) and when their needs are supported, they experience positive emotional and psychosocial development. However, when students’ needs are neglected or frustrated, they experience negative emotion and psychosocial decline. You also learn that being a supportive teacher involves monitoring how you show relatedness and autonomy support when students are engaged in a conflict.

3. To support relatedness you will need to show 1) acceptance and openness, 2) empathy for the student’s point of view, 3) and constant signs of engagement. To support autonomy, you will need to 1) present your point of view in an open and flexible way, 2) support each student’s opinion and feelings, 3) and allow each student the chance to express their feelings in an open and non-judgmental environment.

You are ready for your meeting. Remember to explain the purpose of the mediation and some agreed upon ground rules for speaking. Allow Latisha and Jill opportunities to share their perception of the conflict and ask each student to summarize the others’ perceptions and feelings. Brainstorm possible solutions as a team until you reach a mutual agreement. Finally, discuss ways the girls can avoid a similar conflict again in the future. Best of luck!

Artifact #2

Aggression

Tom worked hard on his book report, which he planned to turn in during your class today. Before he could turn in the report, another student, Chris, vandalized his paper. How will you respond to Chris’ behavior?

Below are some questions to help guide you through this process.

1. Define aggression? 2. How will you go about determining whether Chris’ actions were intended to

hurt Tom? 3. After speaking with Chris, you realize that he experiences difficultly

managing frustrating and challenging experiences with other students in the classroom. In fact, he is often unable to control his negative emotions and generate constructive, prosocial responses to conflict. You remember reading something about this in your educational psychology text. You decide to

reread this section in order to help you respond to Chris’ behavior. What do you find?

Lets consult the experts!

1. Aggression is any intentional behavior designed to harm another person or group physically or psychologically. Therefore, for Chris’ behavior to be considered an act of aggression, it must be intentional.

2. Unintentional harm is an accident; intentional harm is aggression. You decide that you will speak to Chris before concluding whether his actions were intentional.

3. You find that social competence refers to how skilled children and adolescents are at managing the often frustrating and challenging experiences they have with other people. You also read that teachers who use gentle discipline, such as explaining and problem solving, rather than harsh disciplinary strategies, are better able to develop students’ social competence. You also learn that you can teach Chris effective ways to respond to other students rather than reverting to aggressive actions. Finally, you learn that it is important to communicate to Chris the consequences of his actions (e.g., loss of friendships, loss of privileges, isolation).

You share these techniques with Chris and then you inform him that Tom will now join the discussion. You ask Tom to explain how he felt when Chris vandalized his paper. This is meant to induce empathy and help Chris to understand the consequences of his actions. As a team, you discuss appropriate ways for both students to communicate better with one another in the future.

If this is a one-time occurrence, you may resolve these issues alone. However, if the behavior persists, you should refer to your schools guidelines on bullying. In most schools, there are procedures in place for responding to persistent aggressive behavior.

Chapter 5

Artifact # 1

Reaction to PunishmentThe Task:

A teacher asked her sixth graders to write about a time when they were punished by their parents, to describe how they felt about it, and how the punishment influenced their behavior. Here is the response of one sixth-grade girl named Naomi.

Naomi: I have a little brother although I call him a “big bother.” He is in fifth grade. He is always trying to get me into trouble. My mother treats him like a baby. Last week, he took some money out of my mother’s purse and when she discovered it was missing, she

asked us about it. My brother hid it under my pillow and told my mother I had stolen it. Mom was really angry. She wouldn’t believe me that I did not take it. I cried and cried and begged her to believe me but she just yelled at me and told me to go to my room without getting dinner. When my Dad came home, she told him and he was really mad at me. I am not allowed to go out on the weekends for a month. It is SO unfair. I hate my brother.

You Evaluate…1. Review the section on punishment in the text. What are punishers and what

is the difference between positive and negative punishers? 2. What are some benefits of punishers?3. What are some side effects for using punishment to decrease negative

behaviors?

Lets consult the experts!

1. Punishers, such as time-outs or parking tickets, are consequences that decrease the likelihood that a behavior will occur again in the future. They include presentation (positive) punishers and removal (negative) punishers. The frequency of undesirable behaviors can be decreased by positive punishers—adding something unpleasant to a situation (e.g., detention)—or negative punishers— removing something pleasant (e.g., privileges such as time spent on a preferred activity). In this case, Naomi’s punishment is that she is not able to go out on weekends for an entire month.

2. The benefit to teachers of using punishers is that they can gain students immediate compliance. A verbal reprimand can stop horseplay, and peer rejection can stop rudeness. This question is not applicable to Naomi’s situation since she did not steal the money from her mother’s wallet.

3. There are four side effects for using punishment to decrease negative behavior. First, it may teach aggression through a modeling effect. The child learns, for instance, that the way to cope with an irritating peer is to punish him or her. Secondly, punishment also produces negative emotions. Because punishers are aversive events, they open the door to emotions such as fear, anger, and anxiety and behaviors such as crying and hiding. These negative emotions can also undermine the relationship between teacher and student. Naomi has a lot of negative emotions. She is angry with her brother for getting her into trouble. She is also upset with her parents for believing that she would do a bad thing like stealing money from her mother’s purse. Naomi’s relationship to her family members has been undermined. She says that she hates her brother. She is really upset with him. When you consider the elements of high quality relationships discussed in Chapter 3, (attunement, supportiveness, relatedness, and gentle discipline), the quality of Naomi’s relationship to her parents has suffered. The final side effect is that punishment often backfires and yields a vigorous protest response. Sometimes, using a punisher is like throwing fuel on the fire of misbehavior.

Artifact # 2

My ContractThe Task:

Jake is a seventh grader who hates doing homework. Thirty percent of his grade in his math class comes from homework assignments and because he rarely turns in his homework, he is not doing well in math. His teacher, Ms. Sanchez helps him develop a contract with her.

Lets Evaluate!

1. What is a contract, and what are some reasons Ms. Sanchez may choose to use a contract to encourage Jake to do his homework?

2. What are the essential parts of a contract? 3. Here is an example of a sample contract. What are some strengths of this

contract? Is there anything you would change to improve it?

MY CONTRACTMy Name: Jake Smith

Grade: 7th grade

Subject: Math

My Goal: Turn in my completed homework on time at least on 4 days of the week.

Consequences:

If I meet my goal: If I complete my homework on at least 4 days of the week, I can be the class captain for a day. This consequence was my choice. If I meet my goal for 3 consecutive weeks, I will get a homework pass for two nights.

If I do not meet my goal: If I do not meet my goal, I will do the missing homework and two additional assignments on the weekend. If I do not meet my goal in two consecutive weeks, I will go to an after school detention for as many days as it takes to make up the work. These consequences are also my choice.

Student’s Signature: Jake Smith

Teacher’s Signature: Ms. Sanchez

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

My teacher will initial each day I am successful

Outcome for Week 1:

Lets Consult the Experts!1. One strategy for helping students regulate their behavior is to use behavioral

contracts. Contracts can be used to reinforce new behaviors, increase the rate of performance of a behavior, maintain a skill, decrease undesirable behaviors, or monitor the completion of academic tasks.

2. The contract should include:o A list of student behaviors that are to be reduced or increasedo A statement or section that explains the minimum conditions under which

the student will earn a point, sticker, or other token for showing appropriate behaviors

o The conditions under which the student will be able to redeem collected stickers, points, or other tokens for specific rewards

o Bonus and penalty clauses o Areas for signatures of both teacher and student

3. A positive feature of this contract is that it communicates Ms. Sanchez’s expectations to Jake. Effective teachers make certain that students know what is expected of them. They also model these behaviors, and they explain why these rules of conduct are important, helpful, and constructive. In addition, Ms. Sanchez attempts to support Jake’s autonomy by allowing him to choose both the positive and negative consequences. Both agree to the contract after a private conference in which Ms. Sanchez explains the value of the homework to Jake and how his poor grade in mathematics might limit his choices in the future. The contact will be easy to monitor, as it is not complicated. One way to improve this contract would be to include an assessment of the quality of Jake’s homework. Just because he completes his homework, does not mean he does it well. Ms. Sanchez should help Jake learn to value his math homework by showing him how he can use math in real life or how it will be helpful to him in the future.

Chapter 6

Artifact # 1

Managing Learning in ClassroomsThe Task:

As Mr. Hanson was just getting to some productive work with two students in his 6th grade class who needed some extra help, he (and the rest of the class) heard the following exchange between two students:

Luis: That’s not what I said and you know it.

Carolyn: Did too, and I’m telling her.

Luis: Carolyn, if you say anything, you’ll be sorry!

Carolyn: You don’t scare me, Luis!

Mr. Hanson: Enough over there!

At this point all students are laughing and Luis runs from the room.

Mr. Hanson settles the class, asks the teacher in the next room to keep an eye on the class, and goes to find Luis, who is sulking underneath the stairwell. After persuading Luis to return to class and finish up the morning, he heads to the teachers’ lounge wondering just what was going on and how he can avoid this problem in the future.

You Evaluate…1. What is the underlying nature of the problem? Does Mr. Hanson not have

clear rules for the classroom? How can Mr. Hanson use rules effectively to avoid this behavior in the future?

2. Designing your physical environment to limit behavioral problems is essential to an effective classroom management plan. Review the section on designing the physical environment, what information is applicable to this problem?

3. How should Mr. Hanson address the class tomorrow? Should he discuss what happened in class today?

Lets consult the experts!1. Disagreements are bound to happen, but there are techniques Mr. Hanson can use

to lessen the likelihood of arguments occurring in his classroom. Establishing and communicating classroom rules are important to any classroom management plan. Three situations are likely in Mr. Hanson class. First, perhaps Mr. Hanson has not established or communicated any rules in his classroom. Second, Mr. Hanson could have established rules, but did not communicate them well to his students. Finally, Mr. Hanson could have established and communicated classroom rules but these particular students chose to disobey them. Mr. Hanson should reflect on his classroom management plan—for example are the rules 1) reasonable and necessary, 2) clear and understandable, 3) consistent with the instructional goals and with what we know about how people learn, 4) consistent with school rules, and 5) communicated clearly? If so, then Mr. Hanson should refer to the school procedures on bullying and seek advice from the administration on an appropriate consequence.

2. Analyzing the design of the physical environment may be able to help Mr. Hanson understand if there are aspects of the classroom that prompted or

contributed to Luis and Carolyn’s disagreement. For example, where are Luis and Carolyn located in the room? Do they sit next to each other; do they have to pass each other to get from one place to another; do they sit in the corner or back of the classroom where it is difficult for Mr. Hanson to monitor what is going on? Mr. Hanson should consider how aspects of the physical environment might contribute to behavioral problems. Making changes to the seating arrangement is often a quick and easy fix teachers can use to address peer disagreements. If problems persist, Mr. Hanson may need to consider alternative measures.

3. When disagreements occur between peers within a classroom, teachers should conduct a whole class discussion to provide students with an opportunity to discuss what happened in an open and nonthreatening way. Through discussion, Mr. Hanson can share his rationale for why something is right or wrong and provide examples of how to respond to conflicts in a socially appropriate manner.

Chapter 7

Cognitive Theories of Learning

Artifact # 1

The Task:

Brooke is given a picture prompt assignment in her 4th grade classroom. The picture shows a boy sitting on a bench outside an office that is labeled “Main Office.” The boy has his book bag beside him and looks down at the floor.

This is Brooke’s response.

I was bad, very bad. Let me tell you why. This is my story. One day at school, my teacher Mrs. Black told us to bring in something for show and tell starting with the letter D. I was so excited! I love show and tell but I love the letter D; first it is the first letter of my name which is David and next because I have a dog. So I am going to bring in my dog. I was so happy. I couldn’t wait to get home and tell my Mother and Father, and I couldn’t wait to tell Dino, my dog.When I got home, I told my Mother and Father that I was going to bring Dino to class. My Mother said, “Okay, David, go and find a good picture of Dino, or you can take a picture right now of him.” I thought, bring a picture? I wanted to bring Dino in. The next day the day of show and tell my Mother and Father were rushing to work as usual, my Mother asked, “Can I see the picture you choose?” Again with the picture I thought. I replied, “I want it to be a surprise.” She just nodded her head. I got Dino’s leash, put it on his collar and my mom took me to school, I hide Dino under his favorite blanket. She dropped me off at school. I took Dino out of the car. She said good-bye, blew me a kiss and rode off. I waved back in the distance. I brought Dino into the hallway. I said hi to our teacher, Mrs. Black. She saw Dino; the surprise was ruined. She brought me down to the main office, called my mom and now I’m in a lot of trouble! Dino got brought

back home, and now I have nothing for show and tell. Just because of that I have to stay in for recess and write a “sorry note” for two days. Now I know when they say bring in something they mean a picture and I know that dogs don’t go to school.”

You Evaluate…1. What are schemas and how do they differ from scripts?2. Would you characterize Brooke’s response as a schema? Explain.3. How does Brook’s schema relate to her picture prompt story about David?4. What other kinds of schemas does Brooke exhibit here? 5. How do schemas and scripts aid encoding and retrieval processes?

Lets consult the experts!1. A schema is an organized set of propositions about a topic. Schemas are very

important to learning because they influence how a learner interacts with the environment. This relationship is reciprocal because the learner’s experiences in the environment can alter his/her schemas. An example of a schema of a “teacher” might include such propositions as “A teacher is a graduate,” or “A teacher is kind.” A script, on the other hand, is a type of schema that describes the typical sequence of events in a situation.

2. Brooke’s response is an example of a schema because it describes an organized set of propositions related to why students are sent to the principal’s office. Clearly, Brooke assumes that students are only sent to the principal’s office because they are in trouble. However, the boy could have been sitting outside the principal’s office for any number of reasons.

3. Brooke’s schema related to being at the principal’s office is the basis for her story about David. She believes that a child must have misbehaved in order to be outside the office waiting. She inferred from the picture that the office was that of the principal, rather than another kind of office. Because she identified the office in a particular way, she activated schema-relevant elements of a story: e.g., The boy had misbehaved, and there would be consequences for his actions. Brooke also shows her understanding of how scripts allow individuals to predict actions.

4. Brooke exhibits a number of other schemas. For example, she has schemas related to story grammar that she uses to help her write David’s story. She included characters, a problem/solution, a series of events, and a conclusion, which are all important elements of a story. Brooke also included schemas about how students get to school, ask parents for something, and have show and tell. As such, Brooke brings a number of her own conceptions about these topics to bear as she writes David’s story.

5. Schemas and scripts facilitate encoding and retrieval by organizing knowledge. Students are more likely to assimilate new information and it is easier for them to use prior knowledge for learning, when they have more connections and interconnections, stronger ties between the connections, and a better organized knowledge structure. Schemas and scripts also aid retrieval processes because having a well-organized network means that any one piece of information can serve to help retrieve related information.

Chapter 8

Artifact #1

An Example of Guided PracticeThe Task:

Here is an example of a lesson plan for 1st year language class in middle school. (Retrieved on December 28, 2007 from http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/step/ep301/Fall2000/Tochonites/cogaplesson.html)

Conjugations

Objectives : Students will learn verbs for singing music through help from their teacher in a cognitive apprenticeship approach.

Goals : Students will learn how to conjugate regular verbs and they will then apply the rule that they learn to conjugating verbs fluidly in their own skits in the target language.

Activities:

1. The teacher gives a mini-dialogue about singing, using different conjugations of regular verbs in context.

2. The students and the teacher work together to analyze verb use in the story to create a rule that works for conjugating regular verbs.

3. The class works together to create a new dialogue using properly conjugated regular verbs.

4. Students work in pairs to use the information they learned about verbs to create their own skit that they perform for the class.

Assessment: The students will receive formative feedback throughout the lesson about how they are using the verbs. Their final assessment will be the skit –and the teacher will assess whether or not they conjugated the verbs correctly.

You Evaluate!

1. Describe the main elements of a cognitive apprenticeship. How do they relate to a traditional apprenticeship?

2. How does this lesson plan use principles of a cognitive apprenticeship? 3. How are cognitive apprenticeships an example of sociocultural theory? 4. What are some benefits of using cognitive apprenticeships to develop

students’ knowledge and skills?

Lets consult the experts!

1. The goal of a cognitive apprenticeship is for the teacher to use think aloud techniques and scaffolding to model problem- solving processes for students to help them achieve a task that independently would be too hard or complicated. Cognitive apprenticeships are an example of how scaffolding can be used in classrooms. A traditional apprenticeship involves an apprentice learning from a master craftsperson. The apprentice learns through observation, coaching, and practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The typical apprentice begins by doing simple tasks, gradually becomes more skilled, and finally engages in the most complex task. A cognitive apprenticeship has much in common with the traditional craft apprenticeship. It includes modeling, coaching, scaffolding, reflection, articulation, and exploration (Brill, Galloway, & Kim, 2001). Recall that modeling is likely to result in the acquisition of a new behavior when the modeled behavior is visible, easy to observe, and easy to perform. Because cognitive activities lack these qualities, teachers must make explicit efforts to make thinking visible. Teachers can provide a model of how they are solving a problem and have students practice thinking aloud and describing their cognitive processes.

2. This lesson plan reflects the use of cognitive apprenticeships theories in several ways. First, the teacher models how verbs are conjugated in order to change the way their meaning is to be understood in a particular context. For example, the verb sing can be “I sing,” or “I am singing” depending on the context in which it is used. As this teacher models this process, he/she verbalizes the strategies he/she uses to know when and how to conjugate verbs. Next, the teacher coaches and scaffolds the entire class as they practice this skill. He/she can provide feedback to the whole class or individuals as they practice. Finally, the teacher offers guidance and support as students work in pairs developing their own skit. The lesson moves from the teacher heavily regulating learning to the students’ self-regulate independently.

3. According to the sociocultural theory linguistic, cognitive, and social development are needed to learn language arts content. In other words, learning is not only a cognitive process but it is a social process as well. In a cognitive apprenticeship, novices learn through interaction with more expert member within a social context. As such, cognitive apprenticeships are directly modeled off sociocultural theories of learning. Retrieved on December 28, 2007 from http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/step/ep301/Fall2000/Tochonites/cogap.html.

4. Two benefits of using cognitive apprenticeship methods to develop students’ knowledge and skills is that (1) they place the control over learning in the hands of the student, and (2) they promote an active learning environment. The first benefit of a cognitive apprenticeship is that they place the student in control of his/her learning, rather than the teacher. When students are in control of their own learning it provides opportunities for them to develop cognitive management skills, such as goal setting, strategic planning, monitoring, evaluating, and revising, which are all critical for effective learning. The second benefit to using cognitive apprenticeship models is that they conceptualize the student as an active, rather than passive learner. When students become passive learners, they

often take on a "waiting out" attitude to learning, which means they show little effort, attention, or involvement in the learning process. This limits the amount of knowledge and skill development that takes place in the classroom. Cognitive apprenticeships are an effective way to keep students active and in control of their learning. Retrieved on December 28, 2007 from http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/step/ep301/Fall2000/Tochonites/cogap.html.

Chapter 9

Artifact # 1

Peer Learning

The Task:

The following excerpt is taken from a conversation between Edward and Malik as they try to identify the structures of the circulatory system.

Edward: Right here, the valves control the flow of the blood between the chambers of the heart. That wasn’t really hard.

Malik: Come on.Edward: Come on, I just told you. But why is it important, it doesn’t say the

important, each beat of the heart forces blood, I think that’s the importance, what I just said, the valves control the flow of blood. No, valves control the flow through the heart, oh…valves control the flow, no, that’s the, um, function. I’ll just write pumps blood.

Malik: Come on Edward, you have to put something more than pumps blood!Edward: I don’t understand, it doesn’t say anything else besides that.Malik: Valves control the flow of blood through the heart. And without them the

flow of blood through the heart wouldn’t go, would it?Edward: The flow of the valve, the blood flows through, right?Malik: Yeah, the blood flows through the valves.Edward: Blood blood, flows through, blood flows (3x), blood flows through the heart,

oops, I should have wrote valves. Valves flow blood through the heart.

You Evaluate…1. Peer learning has many benefits for learning and performance. Evaluate the

conversation between Malik and Edward, who is the more active student? Explain.

2. How does Malik provide scaffolding to Edward as he reasons through this task?

Lets consult the experts!

1. Edward has the task of writing down what he and Malik agree upon. Malik pushes Edward to be more complete: “You have to put something more than pumps

blood.” Malik also elaborates on the content. As such, Malik plays an important role in Edward staying on task and learning the content and would be considered the more active student.

2. Malik scaffolds Edward’s learning by providing prompts and feedback. Without scaffolding, it is not clear whether Edward’s explanation would have been complete. Saffolding is defined as any sort of guidance that is more than a confirmatory or negative feedback. It includes the kinds of prompts, hints, and splicing of information described by Graesser and colleagues (Graesser & Person, 1994; Graesser, Person, & Magliano, 1995; Person & Graesser, 1999). For example, student A might ask, “What’s going on here?” to prompt student B to describe a process. Scaffolding is a skill that can be taught and can be progressively improved with further training and practice

Chapter 9

Artifact # 2

Evaluating PeersThe Task:

Students are often reluctant to provide honest evaluations of members of a group. They may be reluctant to do so because they do not want to upset their peers or be thought of badly by them. One way to get honest feedback is to ask students to draw the members of their group as circles within a square (or outside it). With this strategy, no-one needs to name anyone. Examine the responses of the three students below: Eric, Amanda, and Marc.

Evaluating Your Group

Eric

Marc

Amanda

You evaluate…1. Obviously there are differences in how each of the group members perceives

the group. What do you think is occurring in this group?2. If this occurred in your class, how could you restructure this group to so that

everyone had a positive experience?

Lets consult the experts!

1. Eric thinks everything is fine and all participants are in the circle and equidistant from one another. Amanda seems to believe that they are not working well as shown by the distance between the two students in the circle. One student is outside the circle suggesting alienation. Marc’s response is somewhere in the middle.

2. As a teacher, you might show the students the three diagrams (without names) and ask them to discuss why the group members see things so differently. You could also ask students to create a list of group rules so that everyone is clear on their role and responsibilities within the group. Finally, you may consider helping students develop more effective communication skills so that they can evaluate and comment on each other’s work in a productive manor.

Chapter 10

Artifact # 1

Engaging StudentsThe Task:

Where have all the middle- and high-school music students gone?

One thing middle- and high-school students in music education do is fail to show up. Student participation in music education is high in 6th grade, but it declines noticeably throughout the 7th and 8th grades. What music teachers and band directors see during middle school is gradual disengagement from music and music education.

You Evaluate…1. As you look at the empty piano bench, ask yourself what is engagement and

what characteristics of engagement can teachers look for to determine whether students are engaged.

2. Consider, why is engagement important?3. Finally, how can you apply these principles of engagement to monitor and

control your students’ interest?Lets consult the experts!

1. Engagement refers to the behavioral intensity, emotional quality, and personal investment in a student’s involvement during a learning activity. First, behavioral engagement refers to situations when students are highly engaged, active, and display strong and enduring effort. During learning activities, students express their behavioral engagement through on-task attention, strong effort, and enduring persistence. Second, emotional engagement refers to students who study and practice hard and long, but they do so within an emotional atmosphere of interest, enthusiasm, enjoyment, and a sense of wanting to. In contrast, less emotionally engaged students might study or practice hard, but they do so under a cloud of negative emotion—tension, pressure, or stress—an emotional atmosphere of resistance, and a sense of having to. Third, cognitive engagement expresses itself when students go beyond the basic requirements of the lesson and invest themselves in a committed and intellectually engaging way. Investing oneself means being strategic and purposive in trying to understand and master the knowledge or skill at hand. Finally, highly engaged students show a fourth characteristic—namely, voice, an expression of the self during task involvement. Students with voice offer suggestions, recommend activities, express their interests and preferences, participate in and contribute to class discussions, and ask questions about what they are learning. In doing so, they attempt to influence the flow of the class in a constructive way.

2. Engagement is important for four reasons. First, it makes learning possible. Learning a second language or developing the skill necessary to play a musical instrument is practically impossible without attention, effort, positive emotion, deep information processing, and voice. In effect, engagement is a necessary prerequisite for a productive learning experience. Second, engagement predicts how well students fare in school, especially their achievement and eventual completion of school, as opposed to dropping out. Third, engagement is malleable and, hence, open to increase. Therefore, it makes sense to give serious considerations to school-based interventions that aim to enhance it. Fourth, engagement gives teachers the moment-to-moment feedback they need to determine how well their efforts to motivate students are working. Thus, there are a number of benefits to ensuring that students remain engaged in their work.

3. Becoming aware of the different ways students express interest and engagement in a task allows you to recognize these characteristics in students and promote them in other students if they are lacking or limited. In addition, when students become interested in a task it serves as feedback about the quality of the task and your teaching. Because students are less likely to learn from tasks that they find boring or invaluable, investing the time to develop challenging, interesting tasks is important to your students’ success.

Artifact #2

Saving Face with Self-Handicapping Strategies

Before handing out the day’s examination, a high-school teacher handed out the following checklist to ask students about possible impediments to doing well on the exam. Here is the checklist one high-school student completed and returned to the teacher:

You Evaluate…

1. When students anticipate being evaluated for their performances, they often offer excuses as to why they might not do well. Sometimes excuses are valid, as students often have too much to do and an insufficient time to prepare. Other times, students offer excuses to protect their self-esteem from harm—just in case the performance turns out to be poor. Poor performance implies low ability—low self-worth—so student often go out of their way to protect against others thinking they have low ability, low worth. What are self-handicapping strategies?

Exam Preparation Checklist(Check all that apply, if any)

_X_ I feel sick today._X_ I’m in a bad mood today._X_ I didn’t get enough sleep last night.___ I’m currently stressed out.___ I haven’t had enough practice yet to do well.___ I haven’t had enough preparation yet to do well.___ I would do a lot better if I tried harder._X_ I’m feeling “under the weather” today._X_ I put off studying for this exam until the last minute._X_ I’ve just got too much to do.___ I had another class I had to study for.___ I’m too nervous to think straight.___ I took some medication and feel very drowsy now.

2. Why do students use self-handicapping strategies?3. Describe some examples of self-handicapping strategies students use? 4. What techniques can teachers use to limit students use of self-handicapping

strategies? 5. How could this checklist be helpful for you as a teacher?

Lets consult the experts!1. Self-handicapping is a defensive self-presentation strategy that involves a

deliberate effort to interfere with one’s own performance so as to provide a face-saving excuse for failure—just in case one does indeed fail. The goal of self-handicapping is to have others disregard low ability as a causal factor in one’s poor performance. In doing so, the student protects his or her self-esteem from the potentially damaging effects of failure.

2. Students use self-handicapping strategies for a variety of reasons. Often, students who use self-handicapping strategies are those with high ability or high self-esteem—high enough that these self-perceptions need to be protected (Arkin & Baumgardner, 1985; Baumeister, 1982). The mental calculation that leads to self-handicapping is as follows: “Before I perform and risk failure and humiliation, I will find or create an obstacle to good performance. Then, if I perform poorly, it will be clear to everyone why. The obstacle caused my failure. If I perform well, however, it will be easy to convince others that my high ability caused not only my success but also my triumph over the obstacle.” The beneficial aspect of self-handicapping is that the self is protected, even immunized, against the possible humiliation of failure. The problem, however, is that sabotaging one’s effort undermines performance and makes success less likely and failure more likely.

3. The textbook offers a number of examples that students create to handicap themselves include procrastination, goofing-off, adopting the sick role, reporting high stress, not getting enough sleep, being on medication, being in a bad mood, and lack of necessary practice or preparation.

4. The antidote to self-handicapping strategies is a learning goal climate. A learning goal is the goal to master the challenges of the task at hand— that is, to learn, improve, develop competence, and get better today at the task than you were at the task yesterday. Hence, teachers can help ease students’ fear of failure by encouraging them to set and embrace learning goals during learning activities (as opposed to an obsession to get the right answer).

5. The checklist above can be useful in a teacher’s effort to sharpen his or her ear to the face-saving messages students frequently send to them.

Chapter 11

Artifact # 1

Thinking-Based MotivationThe Task:The following was voiced by a student having trouble in high-school English:

Teachers can listen to what students say to get a good idea of the quality of their thinking during academic work.

You Evaluate…1. Self-efficacy beliefs, mastery beliefs, and attributions affect students’

motivation in the classroom. Define each of these. 2. In reading the excerpt above, see if you can pinpoint the thinking indicating

the student’s self-efficacy beliefs, personal control beliefs, and attributional style.

Lets consult the experts!

1. Self-efficacy is a person’s expectation or judgment of how well (or how poorly) he or she will cope with a situation, given the skills one possesses and the circumstances one faces (Bandura, 1986b, 1993, 1997). When students possess high efficacy in a given domain—when they feel they have sufficient skills to manage the existing situational circumstances—they believe they have what it takes to do well. Mastery beliefs, on the other hand, revolve around expectations of how controllable versus uncontrollable task outcomes are. Thus, they concern the question of how much control students have over how the assignment turns out (e.g., “What do I need to do to make an A? Will I succeed or fail?). Finally, attributions describe the justifications students use after a bad outcome, such as failing a test, to try to explain why it turned out that way (e.g.,” I failed the test because I didn’t study” or “I failed because I didn’t have enough time to finish”). Whatever explanation follows the “because” constitutes an attribution, because it is an explanation of why a particular outcome occurred

The books we read in class are really confusing, very confusing. Sheez. I try to read them, but get confused right on the first page and just feel dumb, like I can’t do it, like I’ll never understand. Then I just quit and do something else. Why waste my time when I’m just going to be frustrated? Why do something that I’m just not good at? When it comes to books, I just don’t have what it takes, I guess. But, so what, who cares? What’s the point?

2. The passage is repeated below. In this second version, however, the text has been marked by colored type to help you identify students’ self-efficacy, mastery beliefs, and attributional style. The blue type identifies self-efficacy beliefs—in this case self-inefficacy (i.e., low self-efficacy). The red type identifies mastery beliefs—in this case learned helplessness. The green type identifies the attribution being made for why the student feels confused. The attribution here—low ability—is internal, stable, uncontrollable, which reflects a pessimistic attributional style.

Artifact #2

Goal-SettingThe Task:

Mrs. Johnson wanted to help her students set goals for themselves in her math class.To do so, she created the handout below to ask students to write down the goal they had for the class. Here is the goal Samantha wrote:

The books we read in class are really confusing, very confusing. Sheez. I try to read them, but get confused right on the first page and just feel dumb, like I can’t do it, like I’ll never understand. Then I just quit and do something else. Why waste my time when I’m just going to be frustrated? Why do something that I’m just not good at? When it comes to books, I just don’t have what it takes, I guess. But, so what, who cares? What’s the point?

Goal Setting in 3rd Period Math Class

My goal for this week in math class is…

In the space below, write down your goal for the week in this class. Write down what you want to accomplish for yourself this week.

I want to make the highest grade in the class on Friday’s quiz. I will prove to everyone—my teacher, my parents, and all the other students in this class—how good I am in math.

You Evaluate…1. What kind of goals has Samantha adopted? How can you tell?2. What are some of the benefits of this type of goal structure? Are there

drawbacks? 3. How could Mrs. Johnson alter her instruction to encourage Samantha to

adopt learning goals in math?

Lets consult the experts!1. Samantha embraces a performance achievement goal orientation. You can

ascertain that her goal is a performance goal because she seeks to demonstrate her high ability in math relative to her peers. For Samantha, doing well means doing better than her peers.

2. A performance goal generally helps students do well in evaluative situations, such as during quizzes, tests, or answering questions publicly in class. Therefore, in some sense, the performance goal helps Samantha. While Mrs. Johnson may prefer that her students have learning goals, not all performance goals are counterproductive. To ensure Samantha’s success in math, Mrs. Johnson would have to continually observe Samantha to make sure she does not demonstrate negative or unproductive ways of thinking and behaving.

3. To help Samantha formulate both a performance and a learning goal, the Mrs. Johnson could alter her instruction. That is, she could

1) define success in class as improvement 2) value effort more3) communicate that satisfaction comes from working hard4) view mistakes and errors as a natural and even welcomed part of learning5) focus on the process—and not just the outcomes—of learning 6) explain the need for high effort while learning something new or difficult 7) consider assigning grades partly based on progress or improvement

Chapter 12

Artifact # 1

ADHD Medications

The Task:You have just learned that Sarah, your third grade student, has been identified as having ADHD. You will need to learn more about ADHD in order to structure your instruction and the environment so that it is conducive for her learning. To help you do so, consider:

1. What is ADHD and will it interfere with Sarah’s learning? 2. One thing students with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder do at school

is take medicine. The following chart lists the pharmaceuticals used by

children and adolescents (during 2006). Why is this information important for you to be familiar with?

3. If Sarah’s ADHD does affect her learning and performance, what instructional techniques could you employ to help her concentrate?

Lets consult the experts!

1. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurological condition that involves problems with inattention, impulsivity, and self-regulation that are developmentally inconsistent with the student’s age. Children with ADHD vary in the severity of their disorder. Some may be unable to participate effectively in the classroom, whereas many others, given appropriate accommodations, can be very successful. You will have to observe Sarah doing different tasks in order to assess the severity of her ADHD. If you are new to teaching, you may ask a colleague to observe Sarah for the day. This will provide you with a second opinion of your assessment.

2. This list of stimulant drugs is important because it can help you become familiar with the pharmaceuticals doctors prescribe for children and adolescents who have ADHD. Being familiar with this list will allow you to recognize these prescription drugs when talking to other educators (e.g., school psychologist, school nurse) and to parents. Finally, if Sarah experiences side effects from taking the drugs this may help you to understand her behavior and respond to it effectively.

3. There are several strategies you can use to help students with ADHD stay focused. These include providing positive attention and feedback, teaching self-monitoring strategies, using a variety of resources, and limiting distractions. Finally, Sarah’s Individualized Education Plan (IEP) will also suggest a number of specific instructional techniques that will help her concentrate.

Pharmaceutical Market Share______________________________

1. Adderall 36%

2. Concerta 28%

3. Strattera 23%

4. Ritalin 8%

All Others 5%

Artifact #2

Talent and its DevelopmentThe Task:

At the beginning of the school year, you give your fifth grade class the assignment to write about what they would do if they could do anything in the world. The purpose of this assignment is to get an idea of how well the students can write and perhaps to learn a little bit about them. Here is one student (Martin) response:

“I’d give anything if I could draw as well as my brother Tommy, but I’m just no good at it. I wish I were as good as art as I am in math. Math is OK, but drawing is really something special.”

Lets evaluate!

1. Review the information you learned about talent in your educational psychology text. What is talent and how does it develop?

2. Is talent only the result of natural ability like Martin assumes?3. How do early abilities play a role in Martin developing his talent further?4. What might you suggest to Martin to help him develop his artistic abilities?

Lets consult the experts!

1. Talent is the capacity to produce exceptional performance. Three potential sources of talent include enjoyment, valuing, and external support. Enjoyment typically arises when the task results in an optimal experience, such as when a student performs a difficult piece of music and has fun doing so. Valuing typically arises from wanting to improve one’s skill in the domain for its own sake, such as wanting to improve one’s writing skill just to become a better writer, not to make a better grade. Lastly, external support typically takes the form of having access to resources and social support, such as encouragement from a teacher.

2. Students (and sometimes teachers) tend to look at abilities in areas such as art, music, and athletics as consisting of a natural ability or talent—meaning you either have it or you don’t. However, research by several scholars provides a different picture of exceptional ability in these areas. Bloom’s research on talent development and Csiksentmihalyi’s work on “flow” show us that the development of abilities in most areas depends largely on the willingness to work at something hard along with good instruction in the area.

a. The phases of talent development are as follows. During the first phase of talent development, students have not yet engaged in deliberate practice, and natural ability predicts performance very well. This is a period in a domain in which activity is spontaneous and motivation is not a problem. The student writes poetry for the fun of it, or the athlete dribbles, shoots free throws, and plays a game of horse for fun. Once students wish to improve their skills, they begin the second phase of talent development

and engage in deliberate practice. This requires intense concentration and effort, and motivation can become a problem. With deliberate practice, students see a large and immediate increase in their ability. Much schoolwork involves helping students make the transition from Phase I to Phase II, as illustrated by our earlier example of essay writing. To attain an even higher level of proficiency, Phase III is necessary. This phase features the decision to commit oneself to the domain and engage in many hours of deliberate practice in that domain.

3. Early talent is important to developed talent because students who show early promise typically receive more encouragement to pursue deliberate practice. They may also receive more resources, such as books, tutors, and access to transportation so that they can spend time with coaches and attend events related to their area of interest (e.g., concerts, skating competitions). For these reasons, students who show early talent are likely to engage in more hours of deliberate practice over the years than are those who do not show early talent. However, research on talent development makes it clear that number of hours of deliberate practice is at least as important as early talent. During deliberate practice, one’s skill is constantly reorganized in response to instruction and feedback. The picture that emerges is that talent is not just a matter of genetic individual differences; rather, it reflects a combination of innate capacity, hours of deliberate practice, motivation to improve, and encouragement.

4. Developing a talent consists of activities such as on-task skill refinement, self-reflection, coaching and feedback, and observational learning. These activities will help Martin refine his drawing either through self-reflections, feedback from expert artists or by watching other people draw. You might ask the art teacher how she can help Martin develop his artistic ability. The web would also be a potentially good source of information. For Martin’s particular concern, there is an excellent book called “Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain” by Betty Edwards that can lead to remarkable results in terms of improving one’s drawing ability. It’s easy to find this book and a related website (www.drawright.com). Technology is making it much easier today for students to develop talent with help. For instance, drawing programs provide access to a number of tools that alleviate the need for Martin to draw everything freehand. You may suggest to Martin that this may be a good way for him to begin practicing his skills.

Chapter 13

Artifact #1

Diversity and Special Needs

The Task

Mrs. Miller’s sixth grade class is scheduled to begin a unit on the American Cowboy. Mrs. Miller has twenty-four students in her class and five of those students are English Language Learners (ELL). To prepare for this unit, Mrs. Miller locates an interesting lesson plan on Cowboys created by Summer Productions, Inc and published by Discovery Education. Please review the lesson plan at http://www.discoveryeducation.com/teachers/free-lesson-plans/cowboys.cfm.

Let’s Evaluate:

1. Review the Principles for Teaching Second-Language Learners found in your textbook. What elements in the current lesson plan align with these academic standards?

2. Mrs. Miller realizes that she will need to modify the current lesson plan in order to accommodate the ELL in her classroom. Propose 3-4 additional accommodations Mrs. Miller can make so that instruction is inclusive of all learners in her class.

Lets consult the experts!

1. In steps 1 and 2 of the lesson plan, the teacher “elicits from students any situations in which they themselves have sat around, usually in the outdoors, with friends or relatives and entertained one another with poems, songs, and stories.” This instructional technique supports ELL by building background. It provides students with opportunities to discuss or ask questions and helps make content meaningful. This activity aligns with standard #2, 3, and 5 (i.e., Develop competence in the language and literacy of instruction across the curriculum, Connect teaching and curriculum to students’ experiences and skills of home and community, and Engage students through dialogue, especially instructional conversation). By providing explanations, students have a variety of opportunities to enhance language and literacy skills and engage in discourse that fosters their thinking skills. Furthermore, eliciting students’ prior knowledge provides a solid foundation on which to build knowledge.

Students are also asked to “discuss in small groups characteristics of cowboys that they uncover from cowboy poetry or songs—old or new.” The use of collaborative learning can also support ELL. When students work together, group members have opportunities to model, practice and refine their own knowledge and skills, externalize a number of strategies that peers can use, and discuss and

evaluate the effectiveness of one strategy over another. Often it is advantageous for teachers to use a strong student as a “buddy.” This student does not have to speak the ELL’s primary language in order to serve as an effective model.

2. The following is a list of accommodations that Mrs. Miller may also include to support ELLs during this lesson:

a. Use pictorial artifacts during the preassessment to scaffold students’ understanding

b. Allow for oral rather than written responsesc. Introduce proper nouns, difficult vocabulary, and pronunciation before the

start of the lessond. Write key vocabulary on board and highlight key concepts within the

poeme. Provide a dictionary f. Read poem aloud using a slower rate of speech, as the student follows

along.g. Provide opportunities for ELL students to hear the poem twiceh. Allow extended time for classroom activities i. Provide a copy of teacher notes for students

Chapter 14

Artifact #1

Classroom AssessmentThe Task:

Atua has handed in the following work in a high school algebra course. She arrived at an answer of 52, which is pretty far from the correct answer, 36. Review the problem.

The Problem:

Joaquin is three times older than Mary was last year. In five years, Mary will be half as old as Kirstin is now. If Kirsten will be ten on her next birthday, how old is Joaquin?

Atua’s Work:

M = MaryK = KirstenJ = Joaquin

J = 3(M-1)(M+5)/2 = KJ = ?

2[(M+5)/2] = 2(10)M+5 = 20M = 15J = 3(15-1)J = 3(14)J = 52

You Evaluate!1. What mistakes has Atua made in this problem?2. As her high school algebra teacher, how do you mark this problem and what

do you write on Atua’s paper as feedback on her efforts considering:a. This is an end of marking period exam that counts for half of the

grade for the period (summative). This problem comes from a unit that was thoroughly covered in the course. Atua is generally a very strong student but gets careless at times.

b. This is part of a formative assessment given in the middle of a unit on word problems. Atua is a conscientious student, but struggles with algebra. She is sensitive about her abilities in mathematics.

Lets consult the experts!1. Atua has developed the problem correctly, but made two mistakes in its

execution. First, she didn’t notice that Kirsten is not yet ten years old. Second, she made a multiplication error at the end of the problem (3 x 14 = 42, not 52).

2. A) If this was a summative assessment (condition 1), there should be a rubric which measures the instructional goals for the unit. The rubric should clearly indicate (1) How many points are deducted for calculation errors? (2) How many points are deducted for minor errors in translating text to equations? and (3) How many points are credited for setting up the problem correctly? The rubric should be clearly communicated to students. You can do this by sharing the rubric with them ahead of test day (if it is a generic rubric) or including it as part of the question stem.

a. Given that this is a summative assessment and that you have shared the rubric with Atua ahead of time, the rubric will serve as feedback.

B) If this was a formative assessment you may choose to approach this problem a little differently. Basically, Atua has made two careless mistakes, but essentially has defined the problem correctly. If this represents a substantial achievement for Atua (even a small breakthrough), then that achievement should be celebrated first and foremost (through a positive and congratulatory comment). Then you need to consider the errors. You might ask yourself, (1) Are they typical of Atua’s work, or unusual? or (2) Might it be the case that Atua was so focused on setting the problem up right that she lost track of some details?

In addition to providing Atua with a rubric indicating her errors you might also add:

“Atua, you have the concept right, which is great, but the answer is a bit off. See if you can find the two errors you made here and correct them.

Chapter 15

Artifact #1

Cheating on AssessmentsThe Task:

Consider the following scenario:

Ms. Jones was proctoring the end-of-year statewide testing program for her class. She thought one of her weaker students might be copying answers off of his close friend who is sitting next to him. When the scores came back, Ms. Jones found that this student had scores that were much higher than expected.

You Evaluate!1. Review the information presented in this chapter. What is relevant to Ms.

Jones’ problem? 2. Cheating is a serious offense. What should have Ms. Jones done

(immediately) when she suspected cheating?3. Some time has passed since the incident, what should Ms. Jones do now?

Lets consult the experts!1. Chapter 15 addresses issues related to standardized and standards-based

assessments. One of the issues here concerns cheating on assessments. 2. The obvious answer here is that she should not have let it happen in the first

place. This is easier said than done, but there are some precautions that can be taken. First, if this was a high stakes test such as a statewide assessment, then Ms. Jones should make sure she clearly understands the rules for administration and follows them closely. There are usually detailed procedures about what to do if you suspect cheating. Second, unless directed otherwise by the administration directions, Ms. Jones should make sure students are seated with some distance between them, and separate them from close friends. Third, if she suspects suspicious behavior she should intervene. There should be standard rules for this; if there are not she should ask for advice. Fourth, Ms. Jones should report suspicious behavior at the time it occurs. She should tell a supervisor what she saw and suspected while remaining objective. For example instead of saying, “I saw Billy cheating on the test by doing X, Y, or Z,” Ms. Jones might have said, “I saw Billy looking at Mark’s paper and then writing on his own paper. He might have been copying answers.”

3. Ms. Jones still needs to report the incident. She should inform her supervisor or test coordinator what she saw during testing, and her surprise at the high score. This may cause a problem, but it will be less of a problem than if someone else suspects that there was a problem with cheating with her students under her supervision. Again, “An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.”