6

Chapter-2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

On account of a vast insecticidal potentiality of our plant resources, the

numbers of workers have been involved in the utilization of the potentiality from

more than six decades based on the facts that compounds of plant derivatives are

safer to use and leave no residue in the environment.

2.1 PLANT EXTRACTS AND MOSQUITOES:

2.1.1 ANOPHELES SPS:

Chopra et al. (1941) studied the insecticidal and larvicidal action of the

essential oil of Ocimum basilicum and Ocimum sanctum against An. stephensi.

Philip et al. (1945) discussed turmeric (Curcuma longa) and other vegetable oils

as repellents against anophiline mosquitoes. Jacobson (1958) reported the

adulticidal, larvicidal and repellent effect of Aconitum barbatum, Ambrosia

psilostachya, Backhousia myrtifolia, Erythrophelum couminga, Piscidia piscipula,

Prunus lauro-cerasu, Zieria smithil, etc. against the anopheline sp. Amonkar and

Reeves (1970) investigated the control of An. stephensi larvae by active principles

of garlic, Allium sativum. Spilanthol, an insecticidal compound obtained from

Spilanthes oleraceae and Heliopsis longipes was observed by Jacobson (1971)

against An. quadrimaculatus larvae. Nagaraja Rao (1983) screened certain plants,

viz., Albizia amara, Allamanda cathartica, Celosia argentea, Chloroxylon

sweitenia, Clerodendrun inermi, Givotia rottleriformis, Holarrhena

antidysenterica, Mentha piperita, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Theveitia nerifolia,

etc. for growth inhibitiory, larvicidal and pupicidal activities against An. stephensi.

Kalyansundaram and Das (1985) noted the larvicidal and synergistic activity of

plant extracts of Adhatoda sps., Clerodendrun inerme, Croton sparsiflorum,

Parthenium hysterosphorus, Pedaliumm murax, Rauvolfia canescens, Turnera

7

ulmifolia and Vinca rosea for control of An. stephensi. Dharmashaktu et al.

(1987) observed the larvicidal properties of leaf and seed extract of Agave

americana against An. stephensi. Mwangi and Mukiama (1988) evaluated Melia

volkensii extract fractions as mosquito larvicidal agents against anopheline

mosquito. Thangam and Kathiresan (1988) reported the seaweeds (Dictyota

dichotoma, Caulerpa scalpelliformis, Enteromorpha intestinalis, E. clathrata,

Ulva lactuca, Turbinaria oranata, Codium decorticatum, Chaetomorpha linum,

Hypnea valentiae, Sargassum serratifolium, S. wightii and T. conoides) extracts as

mosquito larvicidal agents against An stephensi. Water extracts of castor leaves

were tested against An. stephensi for ovicidal, larvicidal and adulticidal properties

by Vasudevan et al. (1989).

Extracts of various citrus peels including Citrus aurantium (Bitter orange),

C. sinensis (Orange) and C. limon (Lemon) were described as larvicides for Cx.

quinquefasciatus by Mwaiko (1992). Sharma and Goel (1994) studied the

naturally occurring phytotoxins, alpha-terthenyl and erythrosin-B against

Anopheles larvae. Pushpalatha and Muthukrishanan (1995) investigated the

larvicidal activity of few plant extracts against An. stephensi. Limoneim, nomilein

and obacunone, the limonoides from Citrus reticulata were described by

Jayaprakasha et al. (1997) for their moult inhibiting activity against Cx.

quinquefasciatus. Sujatha et al. (1998) evaluated Acorus calamus, Ageratum

conyzoides, Annona squamosa, Bambusa arundanasia, Madhuca longifolia and

Citrus medica extracts for the biological activity against An. stephensi. Murugan

and Jeyabalan (1999) evaluated the effect of certain plant extracts against An.

stephensi. Das et al. (2000) tested the methanol and chloroform extract of

Artemisia nilagirica and Curcuma longa for their insecticidal properties against

An. stephensi.

Jeyabalan et al. (2003) studied on the effects of Pelargonium citrosa leaf

extracts against malaria vector. Larvicidal properties of a perennial herb Solanum

8

xanthocarpum against vector of malaria and dengue was reported by Singh and

Bansal (2003). Sharma et al. (2004) reported the larvicidal susceptibility of

Ajuga remota against An. stephensi. The larvicidal activity of roots of Hibiscus

abelmoschus against An. stephensi, An. culicifacies and Cx. quinquefasciatus was

tested by Dua et al. (2006). Larvicidal efficacy of Aloe barbadensis and Cannabis

sativa against the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi was observed by Maurya et

al. (2007). Shanmugasundaram et al. (2008) studied the larvicidal activity of Az.

indica (Neem) and Pongamia glabra (Karanja) against An. stephensi and

Cx. quinquefasciatus. Govindarajan et al. (2008) experimented the effect of leaf

extracts of Acalypha indica L. (Euphorbiaceae) on the malarial vector,

An. stephensi Liston (Diptera:Culicidae). Kihampa et al. (2009) reported the

larvicidal activity of seventeen Tanzanian plant species against the malaria vector,

Anopheles gambiae larvae. Santhilkumar (2009), reported larvicidal and

adulticidal activities of some medicinal plants against the Malarial Vector,

An. stephensi (Liston). Prathibha et al. (2010) studied the larvicidal activity of

Euodia ridleyi Hochr. leaf extract against the An. stephensi. Njeri et al. (2011)

studied the phytochemical studies and the larvicidal activity of leaves, stem and

root extract of Synadenium grantii (Hook. F.) extracts against the An. stephensi.

Shivakumar and Kataria (2011) reported the efficacy of Azadirachtin against

An. stephensi larvae in Gujarat. Aarthi and Murugan (2011) evaluated the effect

of Vitiveria zizanioides root extracts against the An. stephensi larvae. Kumar et al.

(2012) reported the larvicidal efficacy of the Citrus limetta peel extracts against

An. stephensi. Rawani et al. (2012) observed the larvicidal and deterrency activity

of bud of Polianthes tuberosa plant extracts with different ratios of solvents

against An. stephensi. Subramaniam et al. (2012) tested the larvicidal and

pupicidal efficacy of Momordica charantia leaf extract and bacterial insecticide,

Bacillus thuringiensis against malarial vector, An. stephensi. Eugenol, a compound

synthesized from the Eugenia caryophyllata which shows the larvicidal activity

against An. darling was studied by Medeiros et al. (2013).

9

2.1.2 CULEX SPS:

Campbell and Sullivan (1933) studied the relative toxicity of nicotine,

anabasin, methyl and lupinine isolated from Anabasis aphylla against Culex

pipiens, Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. territans. Rotenone, the active principle

from Derris canarensis and Lonchocarpus nicou was studied against Cx.

quinquefasciatus by Hartzell (1944). Gayar and Shazli (1968) noticed the

toxicity of Cichorium pumillum, Clerodendrum inerme, Datura stramonium and

Nigelle species to Culex pipiens larvae. Amonkar and Reeves (1970) reported the

larvicidal activity of Allium sativum against Culex peus and Cx. tarsalis. Diallyl

disulphide, obtained from Allium sativum, was studied against Cx. pipiens larvae

by Amonkar and Banerjii (1971). Endod extract from Phytolacca dodecandra

was reported by Spielman and Lemma (1973) as effective larvicide for Culex

pipiens. IIyaletdinova and Dubitskii (1974) noticed the toxicity of Agropyron

repens, Anabena variabilis, Haplosiphon fontinalis and Microcystis aeruginosa

with respect to the larvae of Culex longiareolata and Cx. pipiens. Oda et al.

(1977) noticed the insecticidal effect of thujopsene, α-cedrene, cedrol, CEDR-8-

EN-13-OL and 8, 14-Cedranoxide from Juniperus recurva against Cx. pipens

pallens. Rathore (1978) reported the mosquito repellent efficiency of the leaf

extract of Ocimum sanctum against Cx. quinquefasciatus. Torres et al. (1979)

studied the larvicidal and growth inhibition activity of coumarins and cinnamic

acid from Gymnophyton isatidicarpum against Cx. pipiens. Insecticides from

Blumea eriantha, B. malcomii and B. oxydonta against Cx. pipiens larvae were

described by Dongre and Rahalkar (1980).

Kalyanasundaram and Babu (1982) reported Azadirachta indica, Cleome

viscosa, Lantana camara, Ocimum basilicum, O. sanctum and Vitex negundo

extract as larvicides and synergist for Cx. quinquefasciatus. Chavan and Nikam

(1983) evaluated the larvicidal properties of Nerium indicum leaves against

Cx. quinquefasciatus. Kalyanasundaram and Das (1985) noticed the larvicidal

10

activity of Adhatoda sps, Clerodendrum inerme, Croton sparsiflorum, Leucas

aspera, Parthenium hysterophorus, Pedalium murax, Rauvolfia canescens,

Turnera ulmifolia, Vinca rosea, etc. against Cx. quinquefasciatus. Marcard et al.

(1986) observed the larvicidal and growth inhibitory effect of crude methanolic

extracts of Ajuga remota and A. reptans on the post embryonic development of

Cx. quinquefasciatus. Laboratory studies on the mosquito larvicidal properties of

leaf and seed extracts of Agave americana against Cx. quinquefasciatus was

noticed by Dharmashaktu et al. (1987). Extract of some Indian plants, viz.,

Anacardium occidentale, Carica papaya, Hevea brasiliensis, Nerium indicum,

Quassia amara and Thevetia nerifolia as effective larvicides against Cx.

quinquefasciatus were studied by Evans and Kaleysa (1988). Mohsen et al.

(1989) noticed the toxicity of ethanolic extract of Haplophyllum tuberculatum

against larvae of Cx. quinquefasciatus. Larvicidal activity of eight different plant

products including abrine, bixin, curcumin, harmalin, karanjin, picrotoxin,

piperine and plumbagin were observed against Cx. quinquefasciatus by

Chockalingam et al. (1990).

Cannabis sativa, an indigenous plant was reported to acquire larvicidal

properties against Cx. quinquefasciatus by Jalees et al. (1993). Sharma and Goel

(1994) studied alpha-t and erythrocin-B derived from Tagetes sp. as larvicides for

Cx. quinquefasciatus. Rao et al. (1995) developed the combined use of neem

(Azadirachta indica) and water management for the control of culicine mosquitoes

in rice fields. Limoneim, nomilein and obacunone, the limonoides from Citrus

reticulata were described by Jayaprakasha et al. (1997) for their moult inhibiting

activity against Cx. quinquefasciatus. Mosquitocidal activity of acetylenic

compounds from Cryptotacnia canadensis for Cx. pipiens was described by

Eckenbach et al. (1999).

Jaswanth et al. (2002) evaluated the larvicidal activity of Annona

squamosa leaves against Cx. quinquefasciatus. Mosquitocidal activities of

11

octacosane from Moschosma polystachyum against Cx. quinquefasciatus was

reported by Rajkumar and Jebanesan (2004). Larvicidal and adult emergence

inhibition effect of Centella asiatica Brahmi (Umbelliferae) against mosquito

Culex quinquefasciatus (Diaptera: Culicudae) was observed by Raj Kumar and

Jebanesan (2005). Evaluation of indigenous plant extract against larvae of Culex

quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae) was reported by Rahuman et al.

(2009). The effects of the aqueous extract of the plant Striga hermonthica and

Mitracarpus scaber against the Cx. quinquefasciatus larvae was introduced by

Abullahi et al. (2011). Raghavendra et al. (2011) evaluated the larvicidal

efficacy of the Eugenia jambolana Linn. extracts against the Cx. quinquefasciatus.

Sakthivadivel et al. (2012) screened certain plants viz., Argemone mexicana,

Clausena dentata, Cipadessa baccifera, Dodonaea angustifolia and Melia dubia

etc., for larvicidal activities against Cx. quinquefasciatus. The immature phase of

Cx. quinquefasciatus caused by using the aqueous and ethanol extract of Cassia

didymobotrya were evaluated by Nagappan (2012). Govindarajan et al. (2012)

investigated the repellency activity of Delonix elata against the filarial vector, Cx.

quinquefasciatus. The larvicidal activity crude extracts of Larrea cuneifolia and its

metabolite nordihydroguaiaretic acid against the Cx. quinquefasciatus was

observed by Batallan et al. (2013).

2.2 ESSENTIAL OILS AND MOSQUIITOES:

2.2.1 ANOPHELES SPS:

Khan and Quadri (1974) determined the lethal doses of Artemisia and

Taramisa oils for An. stephensi and compared them with DDT and lindane. Singh

et al. (1984) observed cedar (Cedrus deodara) wood oil as a potential insecticidal

agent against An. stephensi. Kumar and Datta (1987) studied the oils of Cedrus

deodara, Cymbopogon flexuosus, C.martinii, C.nardus, Lavandula officinalis,

Melia azeadarachta, Mentha evensis and Ricinus communis as larvicidal agents

for An. stephensi. Tare and Sharma (1991) noticed the larvicidal activity of oils

12

of neem (A. indica), pilu (Salvadora oleoides), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), palash

(Butea frondosa), mohwa (Bassia latifolia), sesame (Sesamum indicum),

eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sps), etc. against An. stephensi and S. oleoides (pilu) and

B. latifolia (mohwa) showed positive results. Sharma et al. (1993) investigated

the effectiveness of neem oil mats in repelling mosquitoes. Murgan et al. (1996)

established the antipupational effect of neem oil and neem seed kernel extract

against mosquito larvae, An. stephensi (Liston). Ansari et al. (2000) tested the

larvicidal and repellent action of peppermint (Mentha piperita) oil against

anopheline mosquito.

Okumu et al. (2007) investigated the larvicidal and adulticidal effects on a

neem (Azadirachta indica) oil against An. gambiae. Mahnaz et al. (2012) reported

the larvicidal bioefficacy of essential oil of Nepeta menthoides against the

An. stephensi. Kweka et al. (2012) studied the toxicity of essential oil of

Plectranthus amboinicus against the African enthrophophagic malaria vector

mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. Estragole, an insecticidal compound obtained from

the leaves of Clausena anisata shows the highest efficacy against the

An. subpictus was introduced by Govindarajan and Shivakumar (2013).

2.2.2 CULEX SPS:

Novak (1968) reported that oils from Armoracia rusticana were toxic to

larvae of Culex pipiens. The repellent creams from essential oils of Andropogon

martini, Cymbopogon martini, C. nardus and Eucalyptus globules, etc. were

prepared by Osmani et al. (1972) against Cx. fatigans. Attri and Prasad (1980)

tested neem oil extractive-an effective mosquito larvicide. Insecticidal chromenes

from volatile oil of Hemizonia futchii was identified and studied by Klocke et al.

(1985) against Cx. pipiens.

Larvicidal activity of some tree oils and their common chemical

constituents against Cx. fatigans was observed by Tare and Sharma (1991)

13

Trachyspermum sps (ajwain) oil, Salvadora oleoides (Rubber) oil, Hevea

brasiliensis (Pilu) and Eucalyptus sp. oil showed good results. Mwaiko and

Savaeli (1994) reported the lemon peel oil extract as mosquito larvicide against

Cx. quinquefasciatus. Batra et al. (1998) observed the efficacy of neem oil water

emulsion for immature Cx. quinquefasciatus.

Insecticidal properties of essential plant oils were reported against the

mosquito Cx. pipiens molestus by Traboulsi et al. (2002). Amer and Mehlhorn

(2006) screened 41 plants essential oils in which camphor, thyme, amyris, lemon,

cedarwood, frankincense, dill, myrtle, juniper, black pepper, verbena, helichrysum

and sandalwood were the most effective and induced 100 % mortality in 24 hour

against An. stephensi and Cx. quinquefasciatus. Zayed et al. (2009) determined

the larvicidal influence of Allium sativum and Citrus limon oil extracts against the

Culex pipiens. The chemical composition and the larvicidal activity of essential oil

of Cupressus arizonica E.L. Greene against the An. stephensi was studied by

Sedaghat et al. (2011). Phasomkusolsil and Soonwera (2013) worked on herbal

essential oils viz., Cananga odorata, Citrus sinensis, Cymbopogon citrates,

Cymbopogon nardus, Eucalyptus citriodora, Ocimum basilicum, Syzygium

aromaticum, etc. for the larvicidal and pupicidal activities against

Cx. quinquefasciatus.

2.3 SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES FROM PLANTS:

Several researchers worked on synthesizing the nanoparticles from the

plants by inducing different metallic substances are as follows:

In recent years, nanoparticles were isolated from plants by several workers.

Lamb et al. (2001) studied the induced accumulation of gold in the plants

Brassica juncea, Berkheya coddii and Chicory. Formation and growth of gold

nanoparticles inside live Medicago sativa were observed by Gardea-Torresday

et al. (2002). Ahmad et al. (2003) studied the intracellular synthesis of gold

14

nanoparticles by a novel alkalotolerant actinomycete, Rhodococcus species.

Synthesis of gold nanotriangles and silver nanoparticles using Aloe vera were

synthesized by Prathap et al. (2006). Haverkamp et al. (2007) screened out the

gold, silver and copper alloy nanoparticles from the Brassica juncea seed. Huang

et al. (2007) introduced the biosynthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles by novel

sundried Cinnamomum camphora leaves. The synthesis of plant mediated gold

nanoparticles from the Sesbania seedlings was reported by Sharma et al. (2007).

The biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles from the fungal pathogens of mulberry

Morus indica was studied by Govindaraju et al. (2008). Gonzalez-Melendi et al.

(2008) assessed the different microscopic techniques for their visualization of

nanoparticles in plant tissues. Differential adsorption of silver nanoparticles to the

inner and outer cuticular surfaces of Agave americana was observed by Marciano

et al. (2008). Barik et al. (2008) discussed that the nanosilica was used in the field

of medicine to control pest.

The gold nanoparticles from oat and wheat biomass were extracted by

Armendariz et al. (2009). Chaisri et al. (2009) introduced the application of

nanoparticles for binding and functional characteristics of mosquito larvicidal

Cry4Ba toxin. Costa et al. (2009) introduced the extraction and application of

calcium oxalate from Codiaeum variegatum. Nuchuchua et al. (2009) studied in

vitro characterization and mosquito (Aedes aegypti) repellent activity of

essential-oils-loaded nanoemulsions. Parashar et al. (2009) initiated the

bioinspired synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Mentha piperita. Parashar

(2009) introduced the Parthenium leaf extract mediated synthesis of silver

nanoparticles. Shekhawat and Arya (2009) tested the biological synthesis of

silver nanoparticles through invitro cultures of Brassica juncea (C. Zern). The

synthesis of platinum nanoparticles using Diopyros kaki leaves extract was carried

out by Song et al. (2009). Zhu et al. (2009) observed the nanoencapsulation of

β-Cypermethrin by complex coacervation in a microemulsion. The development of

15

plant based nanopesticide, therefore, requires further research. Thus, sincere

attempt has been made for developing encapsulated plant based nanopesticide.

2.4 SYNTHESIS OF ENCAPSULATED NANOPARTICLES:

Nanotechnology has been developed in the field of research, which has

revolutionized the encapsulation technique in recent decades. As the

nanopesticides are the developing field and most of the relevant work is being

done since from the last decade. Therefore, limited work was done under this area.

Axtell and Guzman (1987) investigated the encapsulation of the mosquito

fungal pathogen Lagenidium giganteum in calcium alginate against the Cx.

quinquefasciatus. Encapsulation of lemon oil paste method using β-cyclodextrin

was studied by Bhandari et al. (1999). Kumbar et al. (2001) has evaluated the

encapsulation efficiency and release kinetics of Chlorpyrifos and neem seed oil

pesticides by starch and gum. Xing et al. (2005) encapsulated the capsaicin by

complex cocervation of Gelatin, Acacia and Tannins. Bisht et al. (2007) studied

the polymeric nanoparticle encapsulated Cucurmin for the treatment of human

cancer therapy. Paula et al. (2009) investigated the cashew gum nanoparticles

loaded with natural larvicide from Moringa oleifera seeds and found its efficacy

against Aedes aegypti. Protection of triazophos from hydrolysis by incorporating

into nano-emulsion was reported by Song et al. (2009). Yang et al. (2009)

synthesized the polyethylene glycol (PEG) coated nanoparticles loaded with garlic

essential oil and evaluated their insecticidal activity against adult Tribolium

castaneum. Nanoencapsulation of cypermethrin by complex coacervation in a

microemulsion was done by Yinyan et al. (2009). Anjali et al. (2010) reported the

nanopermethrin for larvicidal applications by using water-dispersible formulation.

Bhattacharya et al. (2010) studied the nanoparticles for the control of insect

pests. Paula et al. (2010) evaluated the chitosan, angiogum nanoparticles were

used to encapsulate the essential oil, Lippia sidiodes and tested its efficacy against

16

Aedes or Stegomyia aegypti larvae. Debnath et al. (2010) discussed the

entomotoxicity of silica nanoparticles against rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae.

2.5 DEVELOPMENTAL & MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES:

Many researchers work on the developmental and morphological changes

in mosquitoes and in the other insects by using different plant extracts and their

derivatives. Therefore, the different studies were interpreted and discussed in the

following:

Supavarn et al. (1974) were examined that methanol extracts of Allium

schoenoprasum, Barbarea vulgaris, Brassica nigra, Conium maculatum,

Geranium sps, Hyptis sauveoleus, Lithospermum arvense Ocimum basilicum,

Origanum majorana, Raphanus sativus, Rumex crispus and Thlaspi arvense

showed significant reduction in adult emergence of Aedes aegypti. Qadri and

Narsaiah (1978) noticed the effect of azadirachtin on the moulting process of last

instar nymphs of Periplaneta americana. Fruit extracts of M. volkensii were exert

insect growth inhibiting and antifeedant effects on nymphs and adults of the desert

locust, Schistocerca gregaria were reported by Mwangi (1982). Gordon and

Borford (1984) noticed the effects of methoprene, a juvenile hormone anologue,

on the larval and pupal stages of Ae. aegypti. Dorn et al. (1986) experimented the

effects of azadirachtin on the moulting cycle of Oncoperltus fasciatus. Barnby

and Klocke (1987) reported the influence of azadirachtin on the development of

Heliothis virescens. Mwangi and Rembold (1988) evaluated the growth

inhibiting and larvicidal effects of Melia Volkensii extracts on Aedes aegypti

larvae. Saxena and Sumithra (1989) observed that adverse effect of the leaf

extract of Ipomoea carnea fistulosa on the development of filarial vector,

Cx. quinquefasciatus. Vasudevan (1989) tested different extracts of caster leaves

against Cx. fatigans and concluded that active component ricinin exhibited

hundred percent ovicidal and larvicidal effects. Growth inhibition caused by

-3-epicaryoptin isolated from leaves of Clerodendrum inerme in

17

Cx. quinquefasciatus was discussed by Pereira and Gurudtt (1990). Azadirachtin

induced effects on the larval and pupal transformation of Spodoptera mauriti were

described by Jagannath and Nair (1992). The bioefficacy of Ageratum

conyzoides extracts was evaluated on the developmental stages of malaria vector,

An. stephensi by Saxena and Saxena (1992). Chen et al. (1995) were studied the

antifeedant and growth inhibitory effects of the Limonoid toosendanin and Melia

toosendan extracts on the variegated cutworm, Peridroma saucia. Jayaprakash

et al. (1997) studied the effects of limonoids from Citrus reticulata on the moult

inhibiting activity in Cx. quinquefasciatus larvae. Moulting and metamorphosis in

the sixth larval species of mosquitoes with respect to Ae. aegypti, Ae. vexans,

Cx. pipiens, An. gambiae, An. albimanus, An. quadriamculatus was studied by

Timmermann and Briegel (1998). Ovicidal activity of neem products

(Azadirachtin) against Cx. tarsalis and Cx. quinquefasciatus has been analysed by

Su and Mulla (1998).

Impact of Artemisia annua and Azadirachta indica extracts was observed

by Sharma (2002). Ovicidal activity of Moschosma polystachyum Linn.

(Lamiaceae) leaf extract against filarial vector Cx. quinquefasciatus were screened

by Rajkumar and Jebanesan (2004). Ovicidal and ovipositional effects of neem

(Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) extracts on rice bug, Leptocorisa chinensis (Dallas)

has been studied by De-Ling et al. (2005). Mohanraj and Dhanakkodi (2005)

evaluated the ovicidal effects of neem products on mosquito eggs. Sharma et al.

(2006) investigated the growth inhibitory nature of petroleum ether extract of

Artemisia annua and carbontetrachloride of Sonchus oleraceus against

Cx. quinquefasiatus. The leaf extract of Citrullus colocynthis and Cucurbita

maxima were tested for larvicidal, ovicidal and repellent activities against the

mosquito Cx. quinquefasciatus by Mullai and Jebanesan (2007). Ovicidal

activity of Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) seed kernels extracted with organic

solvents and distilled water on Ae. aegypti eggs were analysed by Umar et al.

18

(2007). Govindarajan et al. (2008) were screened the larvicidal and ovicidal

activity of Cassia fistula Linn. leaf extract against filarial and malarial vector

mosquitoes. Alouani et al. (2009) studied the impact of azadirachtin in life cycle

of mosquito, Culex pipiens. Akinkurolere et al. (2011) studied the developmental

stages of mosquito with different plant xtracts of hexane extract of

Anacardium occidentale, ethanol extract of Myrianthus arboreus and

Xylopia aethiopica. The larvicidal and ovicidal properties of the plant leaf and

seed extracts of Delonix elata (L.) against An. stephensi were determined by

Marimuthu et al. (2012). The larvicidal and pupicidal efficacy of

Solanum xanthocarpum leaf extract and bacterial insecticide,

Bacillus thuringiensis against Cx. quinquefasciatus were noticed by Kumar et al.

(2012). Ndione et al. (2013) studied the larvicidal and cytopathologic effects of

Suneem 1% (neem: Azadirachta indica, A. Juss, Meliaceae) against

Cx. quinquefasciatus.

These studies were discussed on the plant extracts and essential oils. The

relevant literature and research on the development and morphological studies by

encapsulated phytonanopesticide against mosquito is still in infancy. Therefore,

our findings were based on these encapsulated phytonanopesticides against

anopheline and culicine mosquito.

2.6 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS AND BIOEFFICACY:

Most of the workers have studied the effect of different environmental

conditions in different insects. The literature regarding the bioefficacy of

phytoproducts against mosquito larvae under the different physical parameters is

very sparse as compared to other insects.

2.6.1 PHOTOSENSITIZATION:

19

El-Sebae and Moustafa (1970) studied the effect of photoperiodism on the

life cycle of house flies and their susceptibility to insecticides. Berenbaum (1978)

noticed the effect of presence and absence of UV light on the toxicity of

Xanthotorum, a compund obtained from Ammi majus and Thamsoma montana.

The phototoxic action of some plant secondary substances including

turanocoumarins, polyacetylenes, etc. in the insect control was observed by

Philogene and Arnason (1983). Light mediated allelochemical effects of

naturally occurring polyacetylenes and thiophenes (secondary metabolites from

Asteraleae), were examined on Ostrinia nubilalis, Euxoa messoria and Manduca

sexta by Champagne et al. (1986). The biological activity of the UV radiation

degradation products of azadirachtin and its three derivatives

(3-deacetylazadirachtin-22, 23 dihydro azadirachtin and 2', 3', 22, 23-

tetrahydroazadirachtin) against Heliothis virescens larvae was studied by Barnby

et al. (1989). The effect of Xanthotoxin obtained from Ammi majus and

Thamnosma montana under light/dark photoperiod against Heliothis virescens was

studied by Klocke et al. (1989). Pearson et al. (1997) investigated the UV

radiation effected viability of Serratia sp., an effective biocontrol agent of insects.

Effect of light condition on the insecticidal activity of BT (Bacillus thuringiensis)

formulations to the silkworm, Bombyx mori (L.) has been studied by Matsumoto

(2001). Effects of light exposure on the toxicity of deltamethrin, chlorpyrifos-

methyl, and malathion against Tribolium castaneum were extensively studied by

Mansee and Montasser (2003). Faruki (2005) studied the effects of

UV-radiation on the growth and development of malathion-susceptible and

multi-resistant strains of Tribolium castaneum.

Arnason et al. (1981) reported the effect of various compounds obtained

from Bidens pilosa, Centaurea scabiosa, Tagetes patula and Crysanthemum

leucanthemum against the larvae of Ae. aegypti under UV radiation and in dark.

The effect of UV light on the spore viability and mosquito larvicidal activity of

20

Bacillus aphaericus 1593 was introduced by Burke et al. (1983). The effect of

UV radiation and dark condition on the toxicity of various compounds obtained

from Artemisia pontica, Carlina acaulis, Chrysanthamum leucanthemum,

Santolina chamaecyparissus and S. pinnata was observed against larvae of

Ae. aegypti by Arnason et al. (1986). Singh et al. (1987) studied the light

dependent toxicity of the extract of Tagetes erecta and alpha-terthionyl towards

larvae of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus. Mode of action of plant derived phototoxic

insecticide; alpha-terthienyl (alpha-T) was examined against Ae. aegypti in the

presence of near UV light by Hasspieler et al. (1990). Photoactivated toxicities

(under presence and absence of UV light) of 8 species of asteraceous plants

including Tagetes erecta were investigated against larvae of Aedes albopectus and

Cx. quinquefasciatus by Hai Yang et al. (1997). The effect of incandescent light

on the activity of Lagenidium giganteum zoospores against mosquito larvae was

observed by Suh and Axtell (1999). Sharma (2002) reported the

photosenstization larvicidal activity of Artemisia annua and Azadirachta indica of

anopheline and culicine mosquitoes. Swain et al. (2008) observed the high range

of direct exposure of sunlight enhances the larval mortality against the

Cx. quinquefasciatus.

2.6.2 THERMOSENSITIZATION:

Teotia and Pandey (1967) evaluated the influence of temperature and

humidity on the contact toxicity of some insecticide deposits on

Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). Iordaneau and Watters (1969) studied the

temperature effects on the toxicity of five insecticides against five species of

stored product insects. Norment and Chambers (1970) noticed temperature

relationships in organophosphorus poisoning in boll weevils. Srivastava and

Perti (1971) observed the effect of temperature and humidity on the susceptibility

of insects of public health importance with particular reference to Musca

domestica, mosquitoes and cockroaches to insecticides. Wilkin and Haward

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(1975) tested the effect of temperature on the action of four pesticides on three

species of storage mites. The influence of temperature on the pathogenicity of the

bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis to Lymantria dispar and Hyphaentria cunea was

noted by Galani (1978). DeVries and Georghiou (1979) studied the influence of

temperature on the toxicity of insecticides viz. bioresmethrin, CP47412,

dimethoate, isolan, lindane and parathion to susceptible and resistant strains house

flies. O’Donnell (1980) observed the toxicities of four insecticides to Tribolium

confusua in two sets of temperature and humidity. Influence of post treatment

temperature on toxicities of some organophorous insecticides to Rhyzopertha

dominica and Sitophilus zeamais was studied by Hsich et al. (1982) and reported

that malathion was affected the most by post treatment temperature. The effect of

temperature on toxicity and persistence of three pyrethroid insecticides

cypermethrin, fenvalerate and permethrin, applied to control Tribolium castaneum

was reported by Watters et al. (1983). Fischer and Wadleigh (1985) observed

the effect of temperature on the acute toxicity and uptake of lindane by

Chironomus riparius. Joint effects of temperature and insecticides on mortality

and fecundity of Sitophilus oryzae was described by Thaung and Collins (1986).

The influence of post treatment temperature on the toxicity of pyrethroid

bioallethrin, cypermethrin, cyfluthrin, d-phenothrin, fenralerate and flucythrinate

against Cadra cautella, Plodia interpunctella, Prostephanus truncatus,

Rhyzopertha dominica and Tribolium confusum was discussed by Subramanyam

and Cutkomp (1987). Yadwad and Kallapur (1988) studied the effect of

temperature on fenitrothion treatment with reference to Achaea janata,

Bombyx mori and Mythimna separata. Wadleigh et al. (1991) investigated the

effect of temperature on the toxicities of 10 pyrethroids including cyfluthrin,

λ-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin, d-phenothrin, esfenvalerate, fenvalearate, fluvalinate,

permethrin, resmethrin and tralomethrin against Blattella germanica. The

influence of temperature on the activity of chlorinated hydrocarbons,

organophosphate, carbonate compounds, pyrethroides and biological insecticide

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Bacillus thuringiensis were discussed by Garbalinski (1994). Malinowski and

Garbalinski (1995) discussed the influence of temperature on the activity of

pyrethroides (deltamethrin and alphamethrin) carbonates (carbosulfam) and

organophosphates (chlorpyrifos) against Hylobius abietis. Response of stored

grain insects with reference to Sitophilus zeamai, S. granarius and

Tribolium confusum to carbon dioxide toxicity and its dependence on temperature

has been described by Soma et al. (1995). The response of stored grain pest

Sitophilus granarius, Lasioderma serricorne, Plodia interpunctella,

Ephestia cautella and E. kuehniell was noticed by Kishino et al. (1996). The

effect of temperature on the efficacy of diatomaceous earths from different

geographical locations against stored-product beetles were screened by Fields and

Korunic (2000). Arthur (2000) evaluated the effects of temperature on toxicity of

diatomaceous earth to red flour beetles and confused flour beetles. Arthur and

Dowdy (2003) analysed the impact of high temperatures on efficacy of cyfluthrin

and hydroprene applied to concrete to control Tribolium castaneum (Herbst).

Pimentel et al. (2004) studied the influence of temperature on the biological

efficacy of pirimiphos methyl in stored maize. Temperature affecting the

insecticidal efficacy of the diatomaceous earth formulation SilicoSec® against

adults of the rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (L.) was studied by Athanassiou et al.

(2006). Uddin and Ara (2006) studied the temperature effect on the toxicity of six

insecticides against red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (herbst). Effect of

temperature on efficacy of three natural substances to Colorado potato beetle,

Leptinotarsa decemlineata was tested by Trdan et al. (2007).

The effect of temperature along with concentration, light etc. on infection

of mosquito larvae by Lagenidium giganteum was reported by Suh and Axtell

(1999). Sharma (2002) reported the thermosenstization larvicidal activity of

Artemisia annua and Azadirachta indica of anopheline and culicine mosquitoes.

Sharma (2002) reported the thermosenstization larvicidal activity of Artemisia

23

annua and Azadirachta indica to anopheline and culicine mosquitoes. Bayoh and

Lindsay (2003) noted the effect of temperature on the developmental stages of An.

gambiae. Mourya et al. (2004) observed the immature period of Ae. aegypti

mosquitoes was highly susceptible to temperature. The longevity of the aquatic

stages of An. gambiae mosquito in the Afro-tropical region was introduced by

Bayoh and Lindsay (2004). Munga et al. (2006) noticed the temperature effect

on the mosquito pupation period which shortened the developmental period in the

west Kenya highlands. Pascual et al. (2006) observed the change in the climatic

conditions increases mosquito population in the East African highlands.

2.6.3 POTENTIA HYDROGENII (pH):

Heimpel (1955) established the effect of pH after ecdysis, after starvation,

or as mature larvae gut and the blood of the Pristiphora erichsonii (HTG) larvae.

Bell (1971) studied the effect of pH on the mature larvae and nymphs of aquatic

insects viz., dragonflies, stoneflies, caddisflies and mayflies were tested the effect

on the period of emergence. The effect of various concentrations of sodium

chloride on the development of the mosquito, Culiseta incidens was studied by

Wigglesworth and Lee (1973).

MacGregor (1921) discussed the influence of pH (Hydrogen-Ion

Concentration) in the development of the mosquito larvae. Wigglesworth (1933)

reported the effect on the anal gills of the mosquito larvae which swells the cells

of the larvae by the concentration of salts which effects the larval development.

Brown and Platzer (1975) noticed the effect of salts, conductivity and pH of

Reesimermis nielseni against Culex pipiens larvae. Peterson (1979) reported pH

as a factor in parasitism of mosquito larvae by the mermithid Romanmermis

culicivorax. Role of pH factor in biological control of Cx. fatigans by

Romanomermis culicivorax was reported by Sharma and Gupta (1982). Effect of

water pH on the larvicidal activity of Bacillus sphaericus and B. thuringiensis

24

against larvae of An. stephensi and Cx. quinquefasciatus was observed by Mittal

et al. (1995). The influence of salinity and pH on the efficacy of Bacillus

thuringiensis against Culex poicilipes larvae was described by Mohamed and

Abdel (1996). The analysis of pH gradients in the mosquito larvae which

influence the haemolymph side greatly dimished in the anterior midgut due to the

H+ gradient was investigated by Boudko et al. (2001). Sharma (2002) noted the

pH senstivity of Artemisia annua and Azadirachta indica extracts against

anopheline and culicine mosquitoes.

2.7 NON-TARGET ORGANISMS:

Anderson et al. (1974) evaluated the toxicity of crude and refined oils

against estuarine crustaceans and fish. Genthner and Middaugh (1992) were

studied the effects of Beauveria bassjana on embryos of the inland silverside fish

(Menidia berylljna). Effects of Metarhizium anisopliae on developing embryos of

the inland silverside fish Menidia beryllina a non-target organism was tested by

Genthner and Middaugh (1995). Non-target testing of microbial pest control

agents using larvae of the coot clam Mulinia lateralis was demonstrated by

Gormley et al. (1996). Kreutzweiser (1997) demonstrated the non-target effects

of neem-based insecticides on aquatic invertebrates. Dunkel and Richards (1998)

noticed the effect of an azadirachtin formulation on six non-target aquatic macro-

invertebrates. Wiktelius et al. (1999) determined the effects of organochlorine

pesticides lindane (all countries) and endosulfan (two countries) on non-target

arthropods in African maize agro-ecosystems.

El-Shazly and El-Sharnoubi (2000) showed the toxicity of a neem

insecticide, Neem-Azal-T/S, against certain non-target organisms and the order of

tolerance of the organisms to different concentrations of the insecticide was:

larvae of Bufo regularis (Amphibia) > Aedes caspius. (Insecta) > Gambusia affinis

(Poeciliidae) > Cyclops sp. > Daphnia magna (Crustacea). Stark (2001)

examined the acute and chronic effects of commercial neem insecticides on the

25

aquatic invertebrate, Daphnia pulex. Shaffer et al. (2003) investigated the non-

target effects of Bacillus thuringiensis. Sivagnaname and Kalyanasundaram

(2004) were evaluated the toxicity of methanolic extracts of the leaves of Atlantia

monophylla on mosquito predators Gambusia affinis, Poecilia reticulata, and

Diplonychus indicus. Toxicity of medicinal plant extracts (Strychnos nuxvomica,

Knema globularia, Stemona tuberosa, Samanea saman, Annona muricata,

Abutilon indicum) on a non target fish, Poecilia reticulata was observed by

Promsiri et al. (2006). Kraiss and Cullen (2008) investigated the efficacy of

three reduced-risk insecticides (pyrethrins, insecticidal soap, and narrow-range

mineral oil) for non-target effects on one of the aphid's, multicolored Asian lady

beetle, Harmonia axyridis. Antwi and Peterson (2009) estimated the toxicity of

δ-phenothrin and resmethrin to non- target insects, house cricket, Acheta

domesticus, lady beetle, Hippodamia convergens and fall armyworm, Spodoptera

frugiperda.

2.8 SHELF LIFE & CONTROLLED RELEASE:

Schwartz et al. (2001) noticed the control release formulation of insect

growth regulator Cyromazine against the Cx. pipiens. Wybraniec et al. (2002)

presented the releasing characteristics of encapsulated formulations of plant

growth factors for the development of root systems, vegetative growth etc. in

plants. Sopena et al. (2009) investigated the controlled release formulations of

herbicides based on encapsulation. Paula et al. (2009) reported the loading

efficiency of the cashew gum nanoparticles loaded with a natural larvicide from

Moringa oleifera seeds against Aedes aegypti. Yang et al. (2009) studied the

structural characterization of nanoparticles, shelf life, controlled release and

loaded efficiency of Garlic essential oil and their insecticidal activity against

Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Bevilacqua et al.

(2011) studied the shelf life prolongation of fruit juices through essential oils and

homogenization. Pant et al. (2012) observed the encapsulated formulations of

26

neem and karanja oil have shelf life more than 6 months for the bioefficacy against

mosquito larvae. Loha et al. (2012) evaluated the effect of the developed

controlled release formulations of β-cyfluthrin in the synthesized amphiphilic

polymers against C. maculatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae).