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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Study of previous research implies locating, reading and evaluating

reports of researches as well as reports of observations and opinions that are related

to the investigator’s planned research project. Review of related researches is

indispensable to get a clear-cut perspective of the problem. Reviewing research

literature means reviewing the evidence about a topic or a question [21].

A literature review is a written summary of journal articles, books, and

other documents that describes the past and current state of information on the topic

of the present study. Literature reviews contain both primary and secondary source

materials. Primary source literature consists of literature reported by the individuals

who actually conducted the research or who originated the ideas. Secondary source

literature is literature that summarises primary sources. It does not represent material

published by the original researcher or the creator of the idea. Examples of

secondary sources are handbooks, encyclopaedias, and select journals that

summarize research, such as the Educational Review and Research.

Scanning of relevant research reports guides the researcher in the right

direction, highlighting the suggestions of the earlier studies showing him the

landmarks achieved. Also, a synthesized collection of previous studies helps the

researcher to identify the significance and objectives of the earlier research.

Curriculum is the totality of all experiences that the school arranges for

the learner and the methods are the suitable ways of bringing the learner to relive

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these experiences. Dynamic methods are evolved now and then while traditional

methods are infused with favourable changes. When an activity centred approach is

used to teach English as a second language, the result of that approach can be

ascertained by measuring the improvement in test scores or marks secured in an

examination. When the same method is used to teach English to slow learners in the

schools, Diagnostic tests have to be constructed to identify the specific components

of language in which the slow learners commit mistakes/language disorders. A lot of

research has been done in the ways of teaching English to the slow learners. The

implementation of the Activity Based Approach to primary classes was vehemently

opposed by the teachers working in primary schools. As the slow learners ought to

be invigorated and activated to perform better, as a novel venture, the new method

of teaching English has been particularly used to teach the slow learners to see

whether this method enhances, revamps and augments the acquisition of Expressive

Skills in English Language. Factors determining the attainment of skills by the

pupils are age, sex, methods of teaching, medium of instruction, leisure time

activities etc.

A number of studies have been undertaken to find out the influence of

these factors on the development of the four skills in pupils. In the present study, the

aim is to find out if the Activity Centred Method improves the Speaking and Writing

Skills of the slow learners better than the Conventional Methods of Teaching which

encompasses Structural Approach, Grammar Translation Method, Direct Method,

Reading Method, Programming Method etc., Studies of this kind are necessary for

developing a suitable curriculum and designing a suitable method which improves

the skills of the slow learners in English. Language laboratories have not yet been

established in rural schools where computer laboratories are in a shoddy state.

Multimedia facility in some schools is affected by frequent power cut and theft. This

study was carried out in a village school where there is no Science Laboratory at all.

Under several constraints, the study was made. No Power Supply, Poor Transport

Service, no Electronic/Electrical Stores to get spares for the Emergency, no

Furniture up to VIIIth Class, acute Drinking Water Problem, unwashed and unironed

uniforms to pupils are some problems disturbing the pupils and the researchers.

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Children of approximately the same age and class vary greatly physically,

perceptually, intellectually and emotionally. Human behaviours and traits are not

determined by either heredity or environment alone, or by heredity and environment

combined, but rather by an interaction between the two. In an interactive process,

each determinant compounds and modifies the effects of the other. This complex

interaction between the genetic and environmental factors is said to be the cause of

an individual’s learning ability, or disability, or inability. Children who deviate from

the average in mental, physical and neuro-motor, sensory, behaviour and

communication characteristics require a modification of school practices and

services. A modification in curriculum and instruction helps them develop to some

extent.

The previous studies made in related areas are given here under some

five heads or domains (2.2, 2.3, 2.4,2.5 2.6 and 2.7) and each domain has two sub-

divisions. They are presented as follows.

2.2 STUDIES ON INTELLIGENCE

Sarah Glaser, (1993), studied on “Do traditional IQ tests overlook some

bright students?” and concluded that being ingrained in the nation's educational

system, intelligence tests are as American as apple pie. They play a crucial role in

everything from college admissions to military job assignments. But IQ and aptitude

tests have come under increasing criticism in recent years as measures of real-world

intelligence. Although educators still generally consider them good predictors of

school performance, a faction of the psychological community is challenging the use

of traditional standardized tests. Led by Harvard's Howard Gardner, the upstarts

embrace the theory of multiple intelligences, which holds that there are many

varieties of intelligence encompassing talents often ignored by traditional IQ tests.

As these new theorists exert a growing influence on educators' understanding of

intelligence, the nation's classrooms could witness a quiet revolution in teaching and

testing [22].

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Neisser, U et al., (1996), stated that, Intelligence is one's capacity for

logic, abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, learning,

emotional knowledge, memory, planning, creativity and problem solving. It can also

be more generally described as the ability to perceive and/or retain knowledge or

information and apply it to itself or other instances of knowledge or information

creating referable understanding models of any size, density, or complexity, due to

any conscious or subconscious imposed will or instruction to do so. Intelligence is

most widely studied in humans, but has also been observed in non-human animals

and in plants. Artificial intelligence is the simulation of intelligence in machines.

Within the discipline of psychology, various approaches to human intelligence have

been adopted. The psychometric approach is especially familiar to the general

public, as well as being the most researched and by far the most widely used in

practical settings [23].

Goebel, Randy et al., (1997), explained that Artificial intelligence (or AI)

is both the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims

to create it, through "the study and design of intelligent agents" or "rational agents",

where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes

actions which maximize its chances of success. Achievements in artificial

intelligence include constrained and well-defined problems such as games,

crossword-solving and optical character recognition and a few more general

problems such as autonomous cars [23]. General intelligence or strong AI has not

yet been achieved and is a long-term goal of AI research. Among the traits that

researchers hope machines will exhibit are reasoning, knowledge, planning,

learning, communication, perception, and the ability to move and manipulate

objects. In the field of artificial intelligence there is no consensus on how closely the

brain should be simulated [24].

Wendy Johnson et al., (2008), studied on “Sex Differences in Variability

in General Intelligence: A New Look at the Old Question” and opined that there is

little, mean sex difference in general intelligence, yet males tend to be over

represented at both the top and bottom ends of its overall, presumably normal,

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distribution. Despite mean IQ-scale scores of 100, modal scores were about 105.

Even above modal level, males showed more variability than females. This is

consistent with a model of the population distribution of general intelligence as a

mixture of two essentially normal distributions, one reflecting normal variation in

general intelligence and one reflecting normal variation in effects of genetic and

environmental conditions involving mental retardation [25].

Alan, S et al.,(2009), studied on, “How do educational Attainment and

Gender Relate to Fluid Intelligence, Cristalized Intelligence, and Academic Skills at

Ages 22—90 years?”. Educational attainment and gender differences on fluid

intelligence (Gf), crystallized intelligence (Gc), and academic skills in reading,

math, and writing were analyzed for stratified adult samples ranging in age from 22

to 90 years. The data sources were the adult portions of the standardization samples

of the second editions of Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (N = 570) and the

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement–Brief Form (N = 555). Five univariate

analysis of covariance were conducted with age as the covariate. Correlational

analysis supplemented the covariate analyses to better understand the relationship of

the five variables to education. All variables related significantly and substantially to

years of formal schooling, an important finding in view of the key nature of this

background variable for conducting neuropsychological assessments, as elaborated

by Heaton and his colleagues. Surprisingly, Gf related just as strongly to education

as did the school-related Gc. Among academic skill areas, math correlated higher

with years of formal schooling than did either reading or writing. Women

significantly outperformed men on the writing test and the reverse was true for the

math test; other gender differences were not significant. These analyses fill a gap in

the literature regarding the nature of gender and education differences in academic

skills for heterogeneous samples of normal adults between young adulthood and old

age and have practical implications for neuropsychological assessment [26].

Liaquat Hussain et al., (2012), carried out a study on “Development and

Standardisation of Intelligence Test for Children” in Pakistan. The main objectives

of the study were to develop test items and determine the difficulty level and

calculate the Discrimination Index of the test items for doing Item Analysis. An

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Intelligence test provides standardised ways of comparing a child’s performance

with that of other children observed in the same situation. The study was delimited

to only 600 children of age group 6 to 11 years. Our intelligence tests which

measure success in school quite effectively are value laden. They represent primarily

such social values as schooling, verbal abilities, abstraction and concept formation

skills. Some argue that such tests assess merely what has been learned, some have

characterized intelligence tests as either verbal or nonverbal, some characterized

intelligence tests as either culturally biased or culturally fair. Intelligence tests are

simply sample behaviours such as discrimination, generalization, motor behaviour,

general knowledge, induction, comprehension, sequencing, detail recognition,

analogical reasoning, pattern completion, abstract reasoning, and memory [27].

Jeyasudha, J., and Dr.Vasanthi, A., (2014), studied on “Multiple

Intelligence and Achievement Motivation of High School Students” under

Descriptive Survey Method using the tools, ‘Multiple Intelligence Inventory

prepared and validated by Terry Armstrong (1998) and Achievement Motivation

Scale by Robinson’ in Chennai city and found that there was significant and positive

correlation between Multiple Intelligences and Achievement Motivation in high

school students[28].

Dr.Vipinder Nagra, (2014), studied on “Social Intelligence and

Adjustment of Secondary School Students”. The study identifies the social

intelligence level and adjustment levels of secondary school students in relation to

type of school and gender. Social intelligence scale and adjustment inventory were

used for collecting data from a random sample of 200 secondary school students.

Statistical techniques such as mean, standard deviations and t test were applied for

analysis of data. The results revealed average levels of social intelligence and

adjustment in these students. Insignificant differences were observed in social

intelligence and adjustment in relation to type of school and gender. Individuals who

are socially intelligent appear to experience better patience, co-operativeness,

sensitivity, recognition, tactfulness, confidence level, sense of humour, a rich and

meaningful life as well as have enhanced social problem-solving abilities. Schools

must try to encourage and inculcate social qualities in the students so that they are

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better adjusted to the environment. Teachers are the role models for their students

hence they should be effectively trained to help their students avail maximum

benefits and make better adjustments in their life [29].

Maria, P Gomez-Arizaga and Leonor Conejeros-Solar, (2014), studied on

“Gifted Students’ Readiness for College-Factors that influence Students’

Performance on a College Entrance Test” and they stated as follows: Gifted

students’ performance on a Chilean University Admission Test was evaluated and

66 students were selected. The Sample included both male and female gifted

adolescents who studied in public and Voucher (Charter) high schools. The purpose

was to investigate which combination of factors was the best predictor of students’

scores and the difference between male and female students’ performance. Only

intelligence, as measured by the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices test correlated

with the scores on the University Admission Test. Males from Voucher Schools out

performed females on the University Admission Test. Providing academic support

and adequate preparation has been discussed as an important element for college

readiness, successful transition to college, and to diminish the existing performance

gap between students from different types of schools in Chile [30].

How 4-year old children draw pictures of a child is an indicator of

intelligence at age 14, according to a study by the Institute of Psychiatry at King’s

College London, (2014), on “Children’s drawings indicate later intelligence”. The

researchers studied 7,752 pairs of identical and non-identical twins (a total of 15,504

children) from the Medical Research Council(MRC) funded Twins Early

Development Study(TEDS), and found that the link between drawing and later

intelligence was influenced by genes. At the age of 4, children were asked by their

parents to complete a ‘Draw-a-Child’ test, i.e. draw a picture of a child. Each figure

was scored between 0 and 12 depending on the presence and correct quantity of

features such as head, eyes, nose, mouth, ears, hair, body, arms etc. For example, a

drawing with two legs, two arms, a body and head, but no facial features, would

score 4. The children were also given verbal and non-verbal intelligence tests at ages

4 and 14. The researchers found that higher scores on the Draw-a-Child test were

moderately associated with higher scores of intelligence at ages 4 and 14. The

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correlation between drawing and intelligence was moderate at ages 4 (0.33) and 14

(0.20) [31].

2.3 STUDIES ON SLOW LEARNERS

Studies are launched in all the nations to find out techniques for lifting the

category of slow learners to the average category. These are the section of the

society remain unemployed and they are prone to rob and commit crimes for earning

money. An hour’s time of teaching everyday in the afterschool hours to this category

of pupils by the teachers in turn to every class will bring immense benefits to the

pupils and to the governments.

2.3.1 Studies Made in India

V.Ramamuthy and Dr. S. Thangasamy, (1992), investigated on “Common

Spelling Errors in English Committed by VI Std Students of Matriculation Schools

and Remedial Teaching Programme” at Madurai Kamarai University, and found:

1. Matriculation Students improved in their learning of spelling after

remedial teaching Programme.

2. A remedial teaching programme involving the techniques such as

oral drill, intensive Writing practice, gesticulations, dramatizations,

correlation, mimicry, pictures and flash cards, and phonetic

methods, was found effective in teaching of commonly misspelt

words.

3. The common causes for poor spelling were: the length of the word,

words with silent letters, words with similar sounds and words with

consonants [32].

Reddy and Ramar, (1995), undertook a study to assess the effectiveness of

CAI, Computer Assisted Instruction in teaching Science to slow learners and found

that the slow learners in the Experimental Group got better mean gain than the slow

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learners in the Control Group and also narrowed down the gap between them and

Normal Group students [33].

Janakkumar, (1996), conducted a study on the “Effectiveness of remedial

packages for learning the active skills in English by the low achievers at secondary

level”. The study aimed at measuring the effectiveness of the remedial packages in

enabling the low achievers to cope with the normal students in learning active skills

in English. The results of the study proved the remedial package treatment in

teaching English to be more effective than the traditional lecture method to the low

achievers in Class IX [34].

Reddy and Ramar, (1997), assessed ‘effectiveness of multimedia based

modular approach in teaching English to slow learners’. The study found this

strategy to be effective in teaching English to slow learners’. The study found this

strategy to be effective in teaching English to the slow learners. This approach had a

positive impact on the retention of slow learners. They also suggested how this

strategy could be used to boost up the achievement of slow learners so as to

diminish wastage and stagnation in our schools [35].

Shreedhar Rao,Y., (2001), has stated the facts about teaching and

showering care on slow learners in an article published in the The Hindu, dated

2.01.2001. The dismal performance in the examination is used as the yardstick to

brand the slow learners as ‘block heads’. A slow learner is neither mentally retarded

nor is on the lower rungs of intelligence scale. No detention system at the primary

and upper primary levels, the heterogeneous composition of (with different Mental

Age and Physical Age) over crowded classes, the incapacity of the teachers to pay

individual attention are the reasons producing slow learning in schools. Ill health,

lack of concentration, less exposure to the subject taught, unsuitable environment

and poor parental background are other causative factors for slow learning. When

the student has not learnt the basics, it is futile to teach him the advanced topics.

Diagnose the areas of difficulty for him by analysing the answer papers and then

plan the learning experiences to be offered to the slow learners. Teachers at

secondary level should not hesitate to teach the basics which the slow learners

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missed to learn in the primary stage. The English textbooks must have the basic

vocabulary of all the subjects. Slow Learners learn a lot unconsciously from the peer

group. The student is at the centre of activity oriented learning process. Suitably

tailored lesson plans by the teacher will help slow learners have a better grasp of the

subject [36].

Jayanthi Narayan et al.,(2003), from the NIMH developed a handbook

under UNDP supported research project to provide information on why children fail

to learn, how to screen and detect such children, and how to provide remedial

instruction for specific learning problems. As the Indian education system is largely

dependent on evaluation through written examinations, the book also includes

useful inputs for developing examination skills. Children have difficulty in learning

as they have below average intelligence. These are children having borderline

intelligence and are called slow learners. Many such children can be mildly mentally

retarded. Since it is noticed that teachers in primary schools generally do not have

the techniques of teaching such children, this gap must be bridged. This demands the

development of appropriate techniques for detection and intervention for such

children who face learning problems in regular schools. Imaginative tips that can

help the teacher teach and the student learn can be a vital "TLM" [37].

Prakash,V.,(2008), studied on “ Managing Mainstream (slow) Learners

and High Performers in Autonomous Colleges” and says that presence of multiple

level groups in an English language learning class is normal, especially in a place

like India where English as a second language is a compulsory subject in schools

and colleges. Secondary and higher secondary education is offered mainly in two

mediums of instruction, English and the regional language. When these students

move to higher education, be it an Arts and Science College, Technological College

or a Medical College, the medium of instruction suddenly shifts to English. One

group of learners is desperately trying for a pass in the examination but the other

group easily walks over it and performs better due to English medium background.

The greatest irony of the situation is that even educationists who lament about the

absence of speaking skills among the students do not have the communicative trait

to say it clearly. Universities can reframe their academic bodies to design the

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textbooks in the pattern suggested. Autonomous colleges can liberally use their

freedom in changing the structure [38].

Sangeeta Malik, (2009), studied on the ‘Effect of Intervention Training on

Mental Abilities of Slow Learners’ has arrived at the following findings: Forty slow

learners of 5-6 years old of Hisar District were divided into Experimental and

Control groups of equal strength. Impact of intervention training revealed marked

improvement in mental abilities of the Experimental Group. Most of the children

showed low to moderate mental abilities in the pre-test. After intervention, the

experimental group performed better in all the activities of verbal, perceptual,

quantitative and memory aspects of mental abilities [39].

Suresh, R, (2010), studying on “Remedial Work in English” concludes as

follows: Remedial teaching causes a stir for both teachers and students. On one

hand, the teacher has to cover the syllabus within a stipulated time, make lesson

plans. Correct note books, and conduct tests and examinations. Besides, he has to

identify the slow learners, diagnose the problems of the child and plan the remedial

work. Generally the remedial work is done as a special activity after the regular

class hours. On the other hand, the child gets disheartened on being lagged as a slow

learner. Most of the time, we test only the writing skills of the child. The other skills

are usually neglected. The unit tests and terminal examinations rarely test the

listening skills and the speaking skills of the child. Remedial work may be

conducted for all the pupils in a class. If we have a heterogeneous group of children

in a class with slow learners and the high achievers, students who have problems in

reading and writing can get help from the children who are high achievers. Learning

in peer group builds the confidence of the child, and the child learns the importance

of team work. Remedial teaching at times amounts to reteaching of the lesson or

content [40] .

Rashmi Rekha Borah, (2013), investigated on ‘Slow Learners: Role of

Teachers and Guardians in Honing their Hidden Skills’ and concluded that the

category of slow learners exist in almost every class. A systematic way of

identifying and supporting them does not exist at present. There is no doubt that

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individual teachers have developed many effective techniques for supporting the

slow learners who need additional help. Teachers should use their new techniques to

help the slow learners in learning. Guidelines may be framed to assist teachers in

supporting slow learners [41].

2.3.2 Studies Made Abroad

Christine D. Brenner et al, (2002), studied on Collaborative Strategic

Reading (CSR): Improving Secondary Students’ Reading Comprehension Skills”

and arrived at the conclusions as follows: CSR is an approach that works well

mixed-ability class-rooms and helps students improve their reading comprehension.

CSR can be implemented in a subject area class room, such as Science or Social

Studies to improve student comprehension of expository text. Reading

comprehension is a critical skill for secondary students with disabilities, as it

facilitates participation in main-stream content-area classes. Unfortunately many

secondary educators are not adequately equipped to provide reading instruction.

CSR is a reading comprehension practice that combines two instructional elements:

(a) modified reciprocal teaching and (b) cooperative learning or student pairing. In

reciprocal teaching, teachers and students take turns leading a dialogue concerning

key features of text through summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting.

Reciprocal teaching was developed with the intention of aiding students having

difficulty with reading comprehension. Seventh graders with poor reading

comprehension skills achieved sizable gains through use of the reciprocal teaching

method. More recent studies using reciprocal teaching have found it to be effective

with struggling middle school and high school readers Through a number of

research trials, CSR has been refined and currently consists of four comprehension

strategies that students apply before, during, and after reading in small cooperative

groups. These reading strategies are: (a) preview (before reading), (b) click and

clunk (during reading), (c) get the gist (during reading), and (d) wrap up (after

reading) [42].

Sultan Muhammad Khan, (2008), studied on “Education of Slow Learner”

and revealed very good ideas for teaching the slow learners. Slow learners are those

51

pupils who have limited ability due to different reasons in the education process. A

good teacher uses different methods in a class so that every student will understand

and learn. The teachers who use a single method of teaching create slow learners in

the class because every student learns in different style and method. Inappropriate

course materials/textbooks increase the number of slow learners. Transfer of

teachers in the middle of the year should be avoided. Teachers of inability erect a

fence of fear around them. So, slow learners run away from school. L1should be the

medium of learning to slow learners. Communication gaps between teachers,

students and parents develop a rebellious nature in them and retard their progress.

Deprieved cultural background also causes slow learning [43].

From his study on Slow Learning Child, Alan Haskvitz, (2008), has given

some proven ideas to help slow learners.

1. Provide a quiet place to work, where the child can be easily

observed and motivated.

2. Keep homework sessions short

3. Provide activity times before and during home work.

4. Add a variety of tasks to the learning even if not assigned, such as

painting a picture of a reading assignment.

5. Allow for success.

6. Ask questions about the assignment while the child is working.

7. Go over the homework before to bed and before school.

8. Teach how to use a calendar to keep track of assignments.

9. Read to the child.

10. Use my “Three Transfer” form of learning, in which the student

must take information and do three things with it besides reading.

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For example, read it, explain it to someone else, draw a picture of

it, and take notes on it.

11. Be patient and consistent.

12. Do not reward unfinished tasks.

Some of the studies point out that educationally backward pupils were

more reserved, less intelligent, more emotionally unstable, more excitable and

impatient, more internally reflective and less motivated. Some studies indicate

Social standards, introversion, family relations, test anxiety, community relations,

creativity, intelligence, self-concept discriminated between high and low achievers.

Some causative factors for high and low achievement are study attitude, personality

characteristics, interest and involvement [44].

Carl Balado, (2008), the Counselor, Education Programs from University

of Central Florido has offered very good suggestions for teaching slow learners and

to work with them. 1. Reduce distractions by providing a quiet, private place to

work. 2. Emphasize strengths. Use lots of praise and reinforcement frequently. 3.

Make lessons short. Limit the working time and have several short work periods

rather than one long one. 4. Add variety to the academic routine. Do active things

and use educational games, puzzles, and other techniques as much as possible. 5.

Work on material that is somewhat challenging but allows success. Work that is too

hard or too easy is a turn-off. 6. Make learning fun and comfortable. Your positive

attitude is very important. 7. Encourage your child to talk to you. 8. Ask what he did

in school. 9. Ask, what was the best part of his/her day. 10. Ask questions about the

TV shows he/she watches. 11. Talk about what he/she has heard, done, and plans to

do. 12. Communicate with your students.

Go over his/her daily work to reinforce the learning. Slower

learners need repetition.

Provide meaningful, concrete activities rather than abstract.

53

Give short specific directions and have your child repeat them back

to you.

READ! Set an example by reading yourself. Read to your child and

have your child read to you.

Work closely with the teacher to help strengthen academic areas

that are weak in school.

Stress the importance of education.

Encourage your child to explore areas of interest to him/her. Career

opportunities often come from these interests [45].

Erin N.KigEd.S., (2008), from a study on slow learners, has

recommended some steps to be followed in the classroom for teaching slow learners.

1. Repetition, Repetition, Repetition. You might feel like you are

saying the same thing over and over, but it helps make concrete.

2. Encourage other activities in which the child can experience

success and keep them connected.

3. Differentiated instruction

4. Tutoring-This helps fill in gaps in basic skills and it helps a student

5. Stay caught up.

6. Teach study skills to help a student become more efficient in

studying.

7. Teach the most important concepts and leave out some of the less

important details.

8. Peer tutoring [46].

In an article published by “edin_brow” (2010), in Scribd, the world’s

digital library, it is stated that Remedial Teaching is aimed at correcting errors or

54

addressing gaps in knowledge. The teacher like the physician, uses test instruments

to find out the difficulties faced by the pupils in English language learning. A

Diagnostic test provides a detailed picture of strengths and weaknesses in the areas

of student’s learning. The teacher should devise some strategy to overcome the

problems of students in learning. The teacher should assess each student’s individual

proficiency level and then create a plan for that student’s learning. From time to

time during the classes, the teachers should evaluate the progress of individual

students and modify their learning plan as needed [47].

An article published @ Demandmedia, (2011), suggests that a child does

not want to be called as underachiever or slow learner. All children who perform

under their grade level are not necessarily underachievers. The schools should not

feel that all children should be at the same level in each class. The child who has not

mastered the basic skills of learning do not achieve at their chronological grade level

in higher classes. These children get frustrated and even convince themselves that

they cannot learn. If the child has a lack of language development, the teacher

should help him achieve reading skill. If the parents don’t know English, the

children are culturally disadvantaged. They do not have essentials necessary for

learning. Children should be motivated before teaching. Students should be given

challenging work in the class to sustain their interest [48].

Ali AubarArjmandnia and KeivanKakabaraee, (2011), from Iran studied

on “ The Investigation of parents’ attitude toward inclusive education for slow

learners”. 204 parents of slow learners were used and their attitudes were assessed

by a questionnaire by Correlational research . Regression Analysis was used to

analyse the data. Results showed that the attitude of the parents was positive toward

educational integration. Parents were dissatisfied with poor facilities in classroom

and school size. They approve teachers’ supportive and sympathetic relation with

their children. So regression analysis showed that relation of other variables with

parents’ attitude was most significant [49].

Mohammad, Thakaa Z et al.,(2014), in their study on An e-learning

Classification Model of Teaching English for Slow Learners, have found that the

55

slow learners suffer from low rate of understanding for the materials. Therefore they

need special education methods and strategies to educate them. Their paper

presented in the sixth International Conference on Intelligent Computing and

Information Systems in Cairo, describes a Classification Model that has been

designed for teaching English for slow learners’ in order to obtain most effective

learning pattern [50].

Judith C. Murdoch, (2014), studied on “Who will help the slow learner?”

and has given valuable tips to teach the slow learners. The older the child becomes,

the traditional strategies may not be sufficient to engage the slow learner: 1. Giving

more time complete the work 2. Assigning a peer coach 3. Volunteer tutoring 4.

Highlighting main ideas, concepts in the textbook 5. Modifying tests and grading ,6.

Providing extra drill and practice. Now the teachers and parents identify the areas of

their interest/strength and capitalize on those areas to increase opportunities for

success. They may be slow in reading and arithmetic but not necessarily slow in

shop, mechanical, social activities, peer play activities, work or sports. Slow

Learners are not Learning Disabled. However they experience the same learning

difficulties as LD students. So Assistive Technology designed to help Ld students

might also help the slow learner. Individuals who have difficulty with skills like

reading, listening, organizing information or writing may benefit from the use of

assistive technology LDA Fact Sheet. Assistive technology can include but is not

limited to, computers, taped books, spellers, tape recorders, readers, calculators and

electronic date books. He has given some Procedures and Software suggestions

which are useful to slow learners [51].

2.4 STUDIES ON METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH

2.4.1 Studies in India

Rajendran, M., (1991), studied on “Activity Centred Teaching of English-

An Experimental Study” and found out that the new method of Teaching that is

Activity Centred Method produces better result than the Conventional Methods of

Teaching English to IX Standard pupils studying in Tamil medium of instruction in

Government/Aided Higher Secondary Schools. Both Control Group and the

56

Experimental Group have achieved better in reading and writing skills respectively.

There is no significant difference between their mean performance in any of the

skills. Fifty boys and fifty girls from three schools at Walajabad were distributed

equally to both groups on the basis of their performance in an achievement test.

Those who scored single digits were left out. Under the Split Half Method, both

groups were formed. Achievement tests were the tools used for testing their

performance in reading and writing skills [52].

Balasubramanian, N and Yoganandham, M., (1994), made “a comparative

study for effectiveness in improving English pronunciation-trained teacher Vs

technology” with the following objectives:

i) To develop an audio package for improving the pronunciation of

English Vowels, diphthongs and consonants among Standard V

pupils.

ii) To find out the relative effectiveness of the developed audio

packages over direct teaching by trained teacher in the production

of correct English sounds by Std V pupils.

The study concluded that though the training given by the trained teacher

and that given through pre-recorded audio-cassette are almost similar in their

effectiveness in improving the pronunciation of English sounds among Std V pupils,

both the trainings fail to improve one or the other aspect of English sounds. The

training by the teacher fails to improve the pronunciation of diphthongs. The

training given through the pre -recorded audiocassette fails to improve that of

vowels among Std V pupils. It is concluded that the teacher and the technology

should be complementary to each other in any scheme of education. Technology can

be used effectively as an aid in the classroom and teacher’s involvement in it will

make the teaching /learning process more effective [53].

Natarajan, N., (1996), made a study on “effectiveness of modular

approach in learning English by the plus two higher secondary students” with the

following objectives:

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1. To develop modules for learning English Grammar by the +2

students.

2. To find out the achievement of Higher Secondary Students in

learning English Grammar while taught through modular approach.

3. To find out the achievement of the boys and girls taught through

modular approach.

The major findings of the study were:

1. Modular approach significantly improved the achievement of students

after modular treatment. 2. Sex had not influenced the performance of the boys and

girls who were taught through modular approach 3.The boys and girls taught

through modular approach showed better performance than the boys and girls taught

through traditional lecture method [54].

Bonnie Piller and Mary Jo Killings, (2005), from California University

studied on “English Language Teaching Strategies Used by Primary Teachers in

One New Delhi, India School”. Their study has revealed some evidence to support

the idea that effective instruction for English learners does the following (1)

develops proficiency in natural language or conversation through activities that are

related to the children’s everyday experiences, (2) provides ample opportunity for

learning, even over-learning, through recitation, repetition, and practice toward

automaticity of knowledge and skills, and (3) scaffolds for understanding and

development of thinking skills through the methods of demonstration, modelling and

questioning [55 ].

Rama Meganathan, (2009), studied on “English Language Education in

Rural Schools of India: The Situation, the Policy and the Curriculum” and threw

light on the English language education situation in rural schools in India and the

quality of teaching in five States (A.P, M.P. Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland) in the

country. English has established equality among the languages in school education.

In the bilingual/multilingual teaching methods, English predominates over the

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Indian languages. The quality of teaching presents a very appalling picture.

Teachers’ language proficiency, exposure to language and materials are major

concerns for quality English language learning. Holistical learning is not taking

place. Most States refuse to move beyond the good old Structural Approach of the

1950s and the 60s while they stress for communication skills to help the learner for

an upward movement. This paradoxical situation of an English language education

would further place the rural learner in a very disadvantaged position [56].

Ponnuchamy, Gitarani,Ed.D.,(2012), studied on “School English-as –a-

Second Language Experiences of students at Tertiary Institutions in Tamil Nadu,

India: A phenomenological study” had identified 12 themes for the inadequate

proficiency of adult Indian Tamil ESL students in undergraduate programs:

Difficulty understanding lectures and texts in English, benefits of repeated target

language exposure (TLE), early ESL introduction not supported by other factors,

participants' socioeconomic background restricting TLE, parents and participants'

positive attitudes toward English, lack of influence of first language (L1) proficiency

on second language (L2) proficiency, positive influence of intrinsic motivation,

schools' socioeconomic status limiting TLE, culture-sensitive ESL curriculum

rendered futile, ineffective ESL teaching methods, unsupportive teacher attitudes,

and participants' recommendations for improving ESL teaching. Four themes

relating to participants' socioeconomic background, school status, ineffective

teaching, and unhelpful teacher attitudes could be cited as likely reasons for study

population's poor English proficiency. The themes gave rise to six theories,

recommendations for educational leaders, and the OPEN SESAME model for

elementary school ESL teaching [57].

Chirag Patel,(2013), studied on “Use of Multimedia Technology in

Teaching and Learning Communication Skills-An Analysis” and concluded that in

Teaching and learning communication skills, we have a lot to choose from the world

of technology: TV, CD Rom, Computers, C.A.L.L., the Internet, Electronic

Dictionary, Email, Blogs and Audio Cassettes, Power Point, Videos, DVD’s or

VCD’s. The last two decades have witnessed a revolution due to onset of

technology, and has changed the dynamics of educational institutes, and has also

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influenced the educational system and the way people interact and work in the

society. This rapid rising and development of information technology has offered a

better pattern to explore the new teaching model. Using multimedia to create a

context to teach communication skill has its unique advantages. As a result

technology plays a very important role in teaching communication skill. He tries to

analyze the necessity of multimedia technology to communication skills- teaching

and brings out the problems faced, by using these technologies. The study aims to

make English teachers aware of the strategies to use it in an effective manner [58].

MadhaviJanagani, (2013), studied on,”Activity Based

Learning/Teaching: A Pedagogical Approach in Teaching English Grammar in

India”, and found that activities involve students’ participation and we let our

students use their long-term memory and learn effectively during such activities.

The teachers must use songs, poems, games, and problem solving activities which

bring the structural, pragmatic, prosodic and communicative aspects of language

together in the language classrooms. Available resources must be used to provide a

relaxed atmosphere and motivate students [59].

KalyaniSamantray, (2014), studied on Striving for Fluency through

Accuracy: A Blend of Choice, has found that the concerns of second language

teaching/learning are for the learners who are to be accurate and fluent in language

production in the post-method scenario. The use of focus-on-form methods for the

development of the system of SL grammar aims at correctness. For this reason, the

use of formal methods is recommended to maintain SL learning benchmarks. Her

study used the advantages of Formal Methods and the Fluency Development

Approaches for developing a SL grammar teaching protocol with inputs from

sixteen pre-service trainee teachers. She has deduced from her findings that an

understanding of learning psychology and desired learning outcomes influence the

adoption of a combination methodology in teaching grammar to arrive at accuracy

that simultaneously leads to fluency [60].

Dhanya Bhaskaran, (2014), did his study on Content and Language

Integrated Second Language Learning: Misrepresentations of Basic Principles in the

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UG English Curriculum of Engineering Courses and concluded that Communication

and language skills are non-negotiable requirements of the industry. Assessing and

observing the usage of English as a spoken language among the Engineering

students in VIT University in Cafeteria, Classrooms, Hostels, Super Market, Societal

functions and Debates, for three weeks by a group of twelve students, it was found

that the Use of English as a spoken language depends on factors like the context and

the people with whom they are conversing with. In an informal place like cafeteria,

some students do speak in English while in the classrooms,the percentage of

students speaking English is higher. The students need to be motivated to converse

in English in all places. The methodology employed here is to observe students in

random places [61].

2.4.2 Studies Made Abroad

Wright, Marilyn Joyce, (1990), studied three methods of teaching writing

using a sample of III Std children equated for SES and academic achievement. The

three methods are the Language Experience Recorder, Language Experience

Approach without computers and the Basal Approach. While all groups gained in

writing proficiency, the LEA group made the most gains, scoring high in number of

words, meaning units, use of compound and complex sentences, unification and on

the language section of the comprehension tests of Basic Skills. The Basal group

scored high on specific vocabulary, average word length, and reading on the

Comprehension Tests of Basic Skills, The LER group scored high in use of personal

words [62].

Law, B., and Eckes, M., (1990), studied on “ESL for every Classroom

Teacher”, and revealed their ideas. A person’s proficiency in a language refers to the

degree to which that person is able to use the language. In education, we can classify

the uses of language into two dimensions: the social dimension and the academic

dimension. Language can be compared to an iceberg. The portion that is visible on

the surface, usually the social dimension, is only a fraction of the total iceberg. In

order to use a language in academic work, one should use the language for an

extensive period of time to build a foundation. Skills necessary for social

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interactions involving language as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills

(BICS) include, listening comprehension and speaking skill sufficient to understand

and respond to social interaction. BICS demonstrate the learner’s ability to

understand and use spoken language appropriately. Language skills necessary to

function in an academic situation are Cognitive/Academic Language proficiency

(ALP) [63].

Trenchs, (1996), discovered that using e-mail as a supplement to the

classroom curriculum can be effective. The students voluntarily used the e-mail.

They were self-motivated to use their new language in new and creative way for

them. One of the benefits of using e-mail included the scrolling feature that allowed

the students to view the incoming message and use its structure as a model for

creating a response. The scrolling feature also allowed students to easily edit and

revise. The major benefit of using e-mail as a language learning activity is the fact

that students are using meaningful language and authentic text [64].

Lewis, P., (1997), studied on “Using Productivity Software for Beginning

Language Learning-Part I, The Word Processor” and concluded that grammar skills

can be demonstrated and reinforced using computers. The teacher can direct students

to somehow highlight a specific part of speech (for example: Nouns) throughout

their writing. To highlight, students have a lot of choices, such as underlining,

italizing or changing the font size, colour or type. Using a computer as a medium for

studying grammar is much more motivating for a student as opposed to writing with

a pencil [65].

In the website named, ‘The National Capital Language Resource Centre,

Washington DC’, (2003 & 2004), it is given that in Balanced Activities Approach,

the teacher uses a variety of activities. Learners benefit from this variety. It is more

motivating, and it is also more likely to result in effective language learning. The

goal of teaching speaking skills in activities is communicative efficiency [66].

Renee Ybarra and Tim Green,(2003), studied on “ Using Technology to

Help ESL/EFL Students Develop Language Skills” in California. They found that

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Classroom Environment in US has changed as teachers face the challenges of a large

population who do not speak English and have high transient rates.ELL students

need a variety of language experiences. They need to hear language, write language,

speak language and read language. They focused on how CAI ( Computer Assisted

Instruction) can be a supplemental teaching tool for teaching English Language

learners. They concluded that CAI facilitates learning in a variety of ways.

Computers help to teach reading and writing, vocabulary development and verbal

language development. But computers are not a substitute for effective teaching.

They are a supplement to the regular curriculum in teaching EL Learners as they

develop their language skills [67].

The Busy teacher (nickname), (2007), studied on “ Newest Strategies For

ESL Instruction” had expressed some conclusions. Educators should integrate

multimedia into their lesson plans as much as possible. Multimedia activates both

sides of the brain. The study of foreign languages has been shown to be most

successful when the whole brain is used. There are both practical and scientific

reasons to incorporate computer software and internet use in lesson plans. But lesson

plans and interactive instruction should remain. Innovative teaching is vitally useful,

but it will never replace the value of a powerful teacher-student relationship [68].

WajihaKanwal and FauziaKhurshid, (2012), studied on “ University

Students’ Difficulties in Learning English Language Skills” in NUML University,

Pakistan and found that LSRW are better learned and mastered through actual

practice. To become fluent in English language, learners must develop the habit of

using the language frequently. The study was made for Post Graduate students. A

questionnaire of Yes/No answers with 27 items was used. University students

require extra help in improving their English listening, writing and reading skills.

Students are not fully satisfied with their present course contents of English

language and teaching methodologies. Students are hesitant in speaking and reading

skills. More exercises should be given to develop Speaking, Reading and Writing

skills [69].

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Syed Afiat Shah, (2013), from Aga Khan University, Karachi, studied on

“Improving Students’ English Reading Comprehension Skills through Reciprocal

Teaching Approach(RTA) has given his conclusions: Reading comprehension is an

integral part of English language teaching.The purpose of the study was to improve

grade eight students' English reading comprehension skills by using Reciprocal

Teaching Approach (RTA). RTA is embedded in four basic strategies of reading,

such as predicting, questioning, clarifying and summarising. Data for the study was

collected from a sample of six participant students and the subject teacher through

qualitative tools like observation, interview, pre and post-tests, reflective journals

and field notes. The data of the study was analysed at three stages of the action

research that is, reconnaissance, the action research and post-action research stage.

Analysis of the gathered data revealed that there was a reasonable improvement in

students' understanding of the reading strategies. By the end of the study, they were

found to be more proficient, skilful and self-reliant in reading. Thus, it revealed that

the strategies of RTA were helpful in enhancing the skills of six students of grade 8

in the context of the study [70].

Vahid Nimeehchisalem et al., (2013), studied on “Malaysian Secondary

School Students’ ESL Writing Performance in an Intensive English Program”, and

gave their findings: Their paper presents the results of one of the phases of an on-

going school adoption project that aims at developing low-scoring learners’ general

English proficiency. The study focused on the learners’ English writing performance

before and after an intensive intervention program. A quantitative method with a

single group quasi-experimental design was followed to meet this objective. The

findings indicated that the participants’ writing skills improved in reference to five

different domains of writing that included content, language use, organization,

vocabulary and mechanics. The results of paired samples t-tests also showed that the

mean differences between the pre- and post-test scores assigned for the participants’

written samples were statistically significant (p<.05) for all the five domains. The

findings and their pedagogical implications have been discussed [71].

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2.5 STUDIES ON READING SKILL

2.5.1 Studies Made in India

JoycilinShermila, A., (2006), studied on the skills of reading

comprehension in English developed by students of Standard IX in the schools in

Tuticorin District, Tamil Nadu and found that girls scored higher than boys in

reading comprehension. Community variable has no impact on reading

comprehension [72].

In a Manual compiled by Gauthama, G.,(2008), on ALM, it has been

stated as follows: The primary requirement in this process is adequate

comprehension of the language or medium of transaction. If the medium of

transaction is the written word, then the reading comprehension is basic to the

understanding. This is why the student’s engagement with the reading material is

very important. Underlining key words, finding out the meaning of new words using

a dictionary are mandatory. It is important at this stage that the teacher facilitates

such a movement by holding fast to the process. An engaged student, using his / her

resources, gains confidence. For students to read instructions and exercise their

capacities for comprehension is an excellent way of teaching comprehension.

‘playing the cello to learn to play the cello..’ The process of engagement described -

the reading, checking meaning of words, rereading and then articulating one’s own

questions - expands the network of associations in the brain. The reader gains

meaningful and empowering access to the body of knowledge that the piece of

writing represents [73].

Rama Meganathan, (2009), studying on English Language Education in

Rural Schools India: The Situation, the Policy and the Curriculum” arrived at the

conclusion on extensive reading as follows: All the five syllabi (Andhra Pradesh,

Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland) in their design for materials or

curricular package include a supplementary reader (from class VI) aiming at

promotion of reading as a major input for learning the language. The syllabi fail to

recognize the distinction between the intensive reading and extensive reading. It

appears that the supplementary readers for extensive reading are aimed at for

65

intensive reading as that of a detailed reading text. So the examination specifications

suggest testing of the supplementary reader as that of the detailed text. Moreover,

the syllabi do not envisage promotion of reading taking the benefit of learner’s first

language / mother tongue and through story - telling, story reading and creating

locally available resources like class library and reading as a continuous strategy for

learning the language [74].

Usha Bright, (2010), investigated on “The Influence of Listening,

Reading Comprehension on the Skill of Speaking of the students studying in the

Teacher Training Institutes of Kanyakumari District with reference to background

variables-Gender, Locality of institutions, Birth Order, Year of Study, Medium of

Study at Higher Secondary level”. There is significant difference in the reading

comprehension of the students with reference to gender and locality of the

institutions. There is significant correlation between reading comprehension and

speaking Skill. With a simple random sample of 751 student-teachers, she used the

tools Listening Comprehension Scale and Reading Comprehension Scale under

Survey Method [75].

Sandhya Reddy, A.,(2011), studied on “ Inculcating the habit of reading-

A challenge for the English Teacher in the Engineering College”. She points out that

reading is an essential part of language instruction at every level because it supports

learning in multiple ways. In language laboratories, there are activities to promote

the habit of reading directly or indirectly. In group discussions, students are told

discussions to be conducted the following week will focus on current issues. So they

are asked to keep themselves abreast of the latest developments by reading the

newspaper daily. Language laboratory activities like Presentation Skills, Information

Gap Activities, Debates, Film Reviews and so on test the reading acumen of

students [76].

Ravindra B. Tasildar,(2011), studied on “English for Researchers: A

Study of Reference Skills” and found that India’s large scientific research is under

represented in international research journals because of their poor communication

skills in English. In this questionnaire-based study, it was found that academic

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reference skills (or research skills) of the researchers in Arts and Science in Indian

universities are inadequate. The examination of courses on Research Methodology

offered in some postgraduate (PG) programmes in Indian universities reveals that

the focus of these courses is not on basic research skills. As it is assumed that

academic reference skills are learnt automatically, these skills are not incorporated

in such courses [77].

PrabhaHariharan, (2011), studied on “Effectiveness of Activity Based

Learning Methodology for Elementary School Education” and investigated the

educational experiences and attainment of learning outcomes of students in Class IV

who have gone through the ABL methodology. Students with disabilities who are

included in the regular classes have shown improvements in communication and

certain life skills but not in cognitive skills. Learning achievements were seen to be

moderate for basic language and mathematical skills but low for advanced language

skills like reading and writing [78].

AlirezaKarbalaei, (2011), from University of Mysore, investigated on

“The effect of Meta-cognitive Strategies Training on EFL and ESL Learners’

Reading Comprehension” and revealed the findings: Reading is considered very

important in academic worlds, including Iran and India, where English is learned as

a foreign or second language (EFL/ESL). The study was designed to examine the

effect of eleven meta-cognitive reading strategies training on L2 reading

comprehension. To carry out this study, a total of 189 Iranian EFL and Indian ESL

undergraduate college students were randomly selected from among different

colleges in Iran and India. A general English proficiency test, pre-test and post-test

standardized measures of reading comprehension, and meta-cognitive reading

strategy questionnaire were administered to both groups. Both groups attended 60

minute training sessions three times a week for 12-week period. The results were

very interesting, both theoretically and in practice. First, reading strategy instruction

helped learners develop reading strategy knowledge and raised the reading strategy

awareness. Second, reading strategy instruction helped learners improve their L2

reading comprehension. Third, ESL learners were able to present a better

performance in reading comprehension after the strategy intervention program, in

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comparison to EFL learners although the results of this research question indicated

that there was no significant difference between EFL and ESL learners in meta-

cognitive awareness of reading strategies use, in general. In other words, strategy

intervention program could play the same significant role for both EFL and ESL

context although they are socio-culturally different. In sum, both Iranian EFL and

Indian ESL participants benefited in numerous ways from eleven reading strategies

instruction [79].

In an article published in ‘The Hindu’dated 15.4.2012, Nileena, M.S.,

(2012), has written that DTERT, Chennai has introduced the method of using

reading cards prepared by a veteran retired teacher M. Natesan for improving the

four basic skills of language teaching and particularly the reading skill of the

students from Class I-VIII and above . The reading cards were found to be

successful in places where they were introduced. The set of 32 cards have

consonants and vowels ordered in such a way that would help students to gradually

move from easy to difficult levels. The cards are divided into four sets according to

the difficulty level. The cards have letters, words, and word combinations that would

help to lay the foundation for language in students. According to Mr. Natesan, the

method was based on principles of child psychology and programmed learning [80].

Chellamani, K, (2013), from Pondicherry University studied with 80

students from a middle school on “Activating Meta-cognitive Strategies for

Enhancing Reading Skill among High School Students” and concluded that meta-

cognitive strategy use and cognitive control process has its effect on the reading

comprehension of high school students. The significant correlation between their

awareness on meta-cognitive strategies and their reading comprehension indicates

the developed self-awareness and reading comprehension. The outcome of the

treatment proved the possibility of development of regulatory skills among high

school students which in turn helped them to acquire reading comprehension. It is

recommended that language teachers should build meta-cognitive awareness among

students and facilitate reading strategies for enhancement of Reading

Comprehension [81].

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Prema, N., (2013), studied on “ Impact of Refractive Error Correction on

Educational Performance of VII Standard students in Kanchipuram District”, and

found that vision defectiveness has adverse effect on the reading ability and writing

ability of the pupils. Leaving aside children with learning disabilities, the researcher

conducted the study only for pupils with problems in visual perception. Vision

defective students were divided into Experimental and Control groups. The Pretest

was conducted to both the groups. Then the pupils of the Experimental Group were

supplied with eye glasses after proper testing in the SRM Medical College Hospital.

After seven months the Post test was conducted. The performance of the

Experimental group in reading and Writing abilities were found better [82].

2.5.2 Studies Abroad

Examining the effects of strategic reasoning, a programme of cognitive

instruction, on the cognitive abilities and reading comprehension of American

Indian Students in the seventh grade, Archambeau, Guy, Ed.D., (1990), Northern

Arizona University found that treatment did not produce differences between

treatment and control groups in cognitive skills and reading comprehension.

Strategic reasoning consisted of a set of programmed, self-instructional materials

designed for various grade levels. The Independent Variable was the programme of

Strategic Reasoning, and the Dependent Variables were tests of Reading

Comprehension and cognitive abilities, as related to oral English Language

proficiency [83].

On a study of the relationship between reading attitude and achievement

of students enrolled in college developmental reading. O’ Banner, Mary, A., (1990),

Southern Illinois University, has found that there was a non-significant relationship

between students’ reading attitudes and achievement. There were non-significant

negative relationships between students’ reading attitudes and achievement by race

and sex [84].

Investigating the effects of a systematic, synthetic Phonics Reading

Programme on the reading achievement of average and low average second grade

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readers, Kilcrease, Kathleen Lacy, (1990), has found that there is no significant

statistical difference between the mean post test scores of the control and

experimental groups. But there were significant statistical differences between the

mean scores of the pre and post tests of the experimental group in total reading,

vocabulary and word recognition. Also significant statistical differences were found

between the mean scores of the pre and post tests of the control group in total

reading and word recognition [85].

Examining the effectiveness of meta-comprehension, strategy training on

the reading comprehension, critical thinking, and reading awareness abilities of

students in grades 4,5 and 6, Jordon, (1991), Cynthia Memphis State University,

found that meta-comprehensive training appears to have a positive significant effect

on the inferential reading comprehension and meta comprehensive abilities of

students but however the training appears to have little effect on the literal and total

reading comprehension and critical thinking scores of students [86].

Heidi Byrnes, (1998), studied on “Reading in the beginning and

intermediate class foreign language class” and revealed the conclusions:

Traditionally, works of great authors were given to students to read. They learnt a

language by studying its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure, not by

actually reading it. Lower level learners read only sentences and paragraphs

generated by textbook writers and instructors. The Communicative approach to

language teaching has given instructors a different understanding of the role of

reading in the language classroom and the types of texts that can be used in

instruction. When the goal of instruction is communicative competence, everyday

materials such as train schedules, newspaper articles, and travel and tourism Web

sites become appropriate classroom materials, because reading them is one way to

develop communicative competence. Instruction in reading and reading practice

thus become essential parts of language teaching at every level [87].

Studying on “Transfer of Skills from Spanish to English”, Diane August,

Margarita Calderon and Maria Carlo, (2002), found that phonological awareness

training in native language(Spanish) could facilitate children’s ability to read in

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English. They examined transfer in the areas of phonological awareness, word

reading, word knowledge and comprehension [88].

Flora Debora floris and Marsha Divina, (2003), from Petra Christian

University, Indonesia studied on “A Study on the Reading Skills of EFL University

Students” to identify the kinds of reading skills with which the University students

have difficulty with. They prepared two reading tests covering the following 17

skills: 1.scanning 2.skimming 3. Improving reading speed 4. Structural clues:

morphology (word part) 5.structural clues: morphology (compound words)

6.inference from context 7.using a dictionary 8.interpreting pro-forms 9.interpreting

elliptical expression 10. Interpreting lexical cohesion 11.recognizing text

organization 12.recognizing presupposition underlying the text 13.recognizing

implications and making inference 14.prediction 15.distinguishing between fact and

opinion 16. paraphrasing 17. summarizing. The analysis showed that each skill had

different level of difficulty for the respondents. Those who read a lot improve their

reading abilities and increase their knowledge. Without getting much exposure to

reading materials in class, EFL students are unlikely to make much progress [89].

Miscese R. Gagon, (2007), an author of the article, “Right Track Reading

Lessons”, calls the parents and teachers to improve reading proficiency, one student

at a time. She says that students have a natural excitement about reading that can be

tapped into. The tendency to spend time and enjoy what we are good at is simply

human nature. When the struggling readers learn how to read, there is often a

complete 180 degree change in their attitude toward reading. An effective

remediation programme intentionally develops necessary proficient reader skills.

Take the student to the library and engage him in the search for books. “Read! Read!

Read!”. Students should read a minimum of 20 to 30 minutes every day. A

remediation programme should include both direct instruction and guided practice in

handling multi-syllable words. Direct practice with common affixes is also effective

in helping students. Spelling can be used as an effective tool for learning how to

process these longer words [90].

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Suzanne Irujo,(2014), studied on “What does Research tell us about

Teaching Reading to English Language Learners?” and offered the suggestions as

follows: Fluency is difficult for ELLs because their lack of proficiency in English

slows down their ability to decode words and hinders their ability to understand the

meanings of the words and how the words combine to produce meaningful sentences

and discourse. ELLs cannot achieve fluency in oral reading before they have

achieved fluency in speaking. Repeated readings of texts that contain unfamiliar

vocabulary and sentence structures will not increase fluency. Fluency practice for

ELLs can be facilitated by having them read along with the teacher, or by reading

chorally with a group. Let students practice reading first with a partner. Decoding

skills, fluency in oral reading, and reading comprehension interact in various ways.

The ability to decode words easily is obviously necessary for fluency, and it also

facilitates comprehension by allowing the reader to pay more attention to meaning.

Comprehension, in turn, facilitates fluency by making it easier to recognize new

words [91].

Glenda Thorne and Alice Thomas,(2014), studied on “18 Strategies for

Enhancing Language Skills” offered some suggestions for the development of

reading skill.

Teach components of language

Give written copies of directions and examples.

Use echo reading for fluency development

Teach active reading.

Guide to read between the lines

Provide individual evaluation and intervention [92].

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2.6 STUDIES ON THE SPEAKING SKILL

2.6.1 Studies Made in India

Marc J. Riemer-study I., (2002), studied on “English and Communication

Skills for the Global Engineer”. He states that, “skills such as problem solving,

communications, interpersonal skills and critical and independent thinking should be

fostered in engineering education, not just because they are qualities that employers

look for but because they should be part of any tertiary education.” A course in

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) will enhance English language training and an

engineering student’s communication skills. The concept of English for Specific

Purposes (ESP) in Engineering Education, achieves more in the education of

engineering students by focusing the learner’s attention on the particular

terminology and communication skills required in the professional field [93].

Rajendran, S., (2013), studied on “Simple Strategies for Effective

Teaching of English at the Under-Graduate Level in Rural Andhra Pradesh, India”

and concluded that learning English language is highly needed for knowledge,

employment and uplift of social status. Students in rural Andhra Pradesh join the

degree college without the basic proficiency in English and leave the college without

acquiring the communication skills to use in day to day affairs. The current state of

methodology followed in teaching English is to be blamed. To teach required skills

of English by making the learning interesting, simple strategies are suggested which

include motivating the students by the teachers by adopting motivational strategies.

Reading programmes are to be conducted for enhancing the communication skills.

Increased use of humour in English class enlivens the students and the group

discussions are initiated for the overall improvement of student’s English language

skills [94]

David Wilson, D., and Thayalan, V., Study-6, (2007), studied on “The

Significance of the Language Laboratory in developing Communication”, intends

to highlight the significance of the language laboratory and its challenges imposed

on the learner and teacher. This article discusses the various features of the language

lab. As it is a technological aid for learning it has a number of advanced facilities

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that can help a student to learn language with proficiency to communicate. The

electronic devices used in the laboratory will stimulate the eyes and ears of the

learner to acquire the language quickly and easily. A learner can get the experience

of having interaction with native speakers through the laboratory. Hence the

language laboratory has become the need of the hour in any language learning

process for communication [95].

Paul Douglas,S, et al., (2012), studied on “Teacher’s perception on the

learning difficulties and development of English language skills among high school

students: Influence of classroom teaching and workbooks” and stated that almost all

the teachers felt that only the classroom practices, methods of teaching,

communication in the classroom and effective utilisation of the textbooks and

workbooks only provide the effective learning of English in all areas i.e. reading,

writing, listening and speaking.The learning difficulties are less and language

development is more in English Medium Students when compared to Telugu

medium students. This is an indication that the medium of instruction is playing a

pivotal role in the English language development in the students. Regarding the

process of instruction, the teachers are under the perception that writing is more

useful to learn the language only for writing purpose. Much of the workbooks are

providing the students the writing part of language but not the oral communication

part of English. This shows that, there is a lot of opportunity for the teacher to use

oral communication in the classroom to develop listening, reading and speaking

skills in the classroom, which the teacher has to develop through various methods

and modes of instruction [96].

Margaret, S., (2011), studied on “Learner-Based Teaching for achieving

Oral Fluency. How to make it a win-win situation”. Forty students of an aided

school in Chennai were involved. The experimental group was given rigorous

practice in oral communicative tasks for five months in well scheduled sequences. A

wide range of L2 exposure activities and oral skill-focused tasks were employed for

getting their interest and to sustain their involvement and effort. Data were collected

from four types of oral tasks, scores of pre and post tests, favourable attitude

questionnaires, student interview, and teacher interview to achieve methodological

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triangulation. The statistical tools of the independent samples test and paired

samples test were used to determine whether there were significant inter- and intra-

group differences. He found that involving learners themselves in identifying the

type of tasks, creation of the needed environment, arranging for group dynamics,

designing activities and collection of materials would enhance their involvement and

interest even in challenging tasks such as achieving oral skills in English [97].

Reena and Rosalia, H., Bonjour, Study-12,(2011), investigated on

“Teaching Communication Skills for Tamil Medium Engineering Students” and

they concluded that, engineers need to be able to communicate their thoughts, ideas

and plans to many other specialists in many different fields. Therefore

communication skills are crucial for engineering students to ensure a secure

placement and a comfortable life. They also suggest in their article that teachers of

English have a responsibility to assist students in developing more positive

perceptions of communication activities. English teacher should conduct multiple

classroom activities for developing communication skills like presentations, group

discussions, role-play and LSRW activities [98].

Chandrika Mohan, (2012), from her research on “English Language

Teaching-Updating the English classroom with Techniques and Communication

Skills” has found that different topics such as excursion, giving directions to others,

explaining about an experience etc., may be given for cohesive speaking. Students

should be instructed to use various strategies such as description, prediction,

simplification, use of direct speech, illustrations, use of narrative techniques , use of

idioms and phrases, natural use of connectors, use of intonation, stress etc as per the

topic and the use of non-verbal communication strategies etc. At every step of the

speech activity, the teacher should monitor whether the students are using all the

relevant components at an appropriate place or not. In case of any drawback, the

students should be given more practice. In the activity of speaking, various groups

may be formed in the class and they may be asked to converse in the given topics

[99].

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Studying on ‘A Comparative Study of English Communication Skill of

students studying in Government and Private schools’, in Ghaziabad District,

Shashi Sharma and Dr.Neetu Chawla, (2013), prepared Skill based Achievement

Test to measure the communication in English of the Higher Secondary level

students. The Communication Skill test included test of Comprehension,

Vocabulary, Grammar and Composition. As recording was done, all the skills were

tested. A Short Interview Schedule was developed and audio-recording was done to

evaluate speaking and listening skill. Students had only moderate English

communication skills [100].

Kalyani Samantray, (2014), studied on “Striving for fluency through

Accuracy: A Blend of Choices” and found that the concerns of SL teaching/learning

are for the learners to be accurate and fluent in language production. The use of

Focus –on-Form-Methods for the development of the system of SL grammar aims at

correctness. For this reason, the use of formal methods is recommended to maintain

SL learning benchmarks. Fluency Development Approaches are akin to Natural

Learning processes. An understanding and learning of psychology and desired

learning outcomes influence the adoption of a combination methodology in teaching

grammar to arrive an accuracy that simultaneously leads to fluency [101].

Researchers at IBM’s India Research Laboratory, (2014), have developed

web-based interactive language technology to help people who speak English as a

second language and improve their speaking skills. Based on advanced speech

processing techniques, the technology evaluates grammar, pronunciation,

comprehension and other spoken language skills, and provides detailed scores for

each category. It uses specially-adapted speech recognition software to score the

pronunciation of passages and the stressing of syllables for individual words. The

technology also consists of voice-enabled grammar evaluation tests which identify

areas for improvement by highlighting shortcomings and providing examples of

correct pronunciation and grammar. IBM’s technology is designed for easy learning,

allowing students to interact with the tool as if they are playing a real time on line

game. If a student mispronounces a word, the learning tool can immediately spot it

and help correct it [102].

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Sukumar Gowda, N., (2015), has given a lot of information on speech acts

and language functions in his book, “Learning and the Learner”. A five part

classification of speech acts established by Searle has been clearly explained. 1.

Commissive: a speech act that commits the speaker into doing something in the

future. For example, “ If you don’t stop fighting, I’ll call the police”. 2. Declarative:

A speech act which changes the state of affairs in the world. “ The convict is

acquitted”. 3. Directive: a speech act that has the function of getting the listener to

do something. “ Please sit down”. 4. Expressive: a speech act in which the speaker

expresses feelings and attitudes about something, such as an apology, a complaint

etc. “I love Hindustani music”. 5. Representative: a speech act which describes

states or events in the world, such as an assertion, a claim, and a report. “This is a

German car (assertion); “This medicine gives a sure relief (claim), and “His house

was burgled last night”. Thus speech acts have an act component and a language

component [3].

2.6.2 Studies Abroad

Students have a strong desire to speak in English. They are reluctant to

speak because they are afraid of making mistakes and failing to find suitable words

to express themselves well. If a good language environment is created, students will

speak actively, willingly and naturally. Speaking as one of the four skills can be

mastered only through practice. Practice makes one perfect.

Grace Stovall Burkart, (1998), studied on “Spoken Language: What it is

and how to teach it”, and stated as follows: Language learners need to recognize that

speaking involves three areas of knowledge.

Mechanics (Pronunciation, Grammar, and Vocabulary): Using the

right words in the right order with the correct pronunciation.

Functions (transaction and interaction): Knowing when clarity of

message is essential( transaction/information exchange) and when

precise understanding is not required (interaction/relationship

building)

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Social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech,

length of passes between speakers, relative roles of participants):

Understanding how to take into account who is speaking to whom,

in what circumstances, about what, and for what reason [103].

Baobin Zhao, (1998), says that students are poor in speaking English

because of lack of speaking practice. Asian students tend to be reluctant to speak

English in class as well as after class. The teachers have to encourage and motivate

their students, especially in class. There are two factors to affect students’ speaking

English in class. One is they fail to find suitable words to express themselves and the

other is they are afraid of making mistakes out of shyness or nervousness. Students

must be in a free environment. The methods he used are: 1. Free talk of topics of

their interest 2. Retelling a story read, listened or watched. 3. Role Play 4. Debate 5.

Story Telling 6. Talking according to the picture 7. Short Play 8. Speech contest 9.

Description 10. Acting and Speaking 11. Speaking and Drawing 12. Problem

Solving 13. Games: a) Twenty Guessing Questions b) Taboo Word Description c)

Listen and Guess d) Repeat and Add e) Right or Wrong [104].

Terry Avon, (1998), suggests Group Competition Technique to make the

students speak. They all want their group to win. Focus should be laid on fluency

first and then accuracy. He introduced a communicative game called, “ Hot Seat”.

The activity introduces new vocabulary, or reinforce old vocabulary, functions and

or grammar points [105].

Linell Davis, (1999), in a compromised method between Roger’s harder

and easier methods, gave the students, a list of about five topics that would be on the

test. They would be about study problems, maintaining health, preparing for work,

etc. Students have to converse on one of the topics with a partner. When the students

arrive in pairs for their test, they draw a slip of paper from a box to determine the

topic they will discuss. Each pair has 10 minutes to prepare their dialogue while the

previous pair is being tested. This procedure prevents memorization but gives

students an opportunity to prepare. The test is five minutes and he used to give the

pair feedback for two or three minutes [106].

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Mary Ann Cunningham Florez, (1999), investigated on “ Improving Adult

English Language Learners’ Speaking Skills” and concluded that speaking is an

interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving

and processing information. Language functions (or patterns) that tend to recur in

certain discourse situations (For example, declining an invitation or requesting time

off from work) can be identified and charted. For example, when a salesperson asks,

“May I help you?” the expected discourse sequence includes a statement of need,

response to the need, offer of appreciation, acknowledgement of the appreciation,

and a leave taking exchange. Speaking requires that learners not only know how to

produce specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary

(linguistic competence), but also that they understand when, why, and in what ways

to produce language (sociolinguistic competence) [107].

Roger Chrisman, (1999), practised two methods for teaching and testing

speaking and for grading students in universities of China. In a three minute

presentation test (harder method), each student was given 3 minutes to tell anything

they wanted, privately. The students were not permitted to read a speech but notes

were allowed. Some of them responded by memorizing a 3 minute speech. But

Roger discouraged this by asking questions and urged them to talk. The students

need to practise their material whatever they choose, by telling to their favourite

classmates a few times instead of memorizing it [108].

The National Capital Language Resource Center,WashingtonDc.,

(2004), had arranged to study on the “Strategies for Developing Speaking Skills

“and revealed that effective instructors teach students speaking strategies—using

minimal responses, recognizing scripts, and using language to talk about language—

that they can use to help themselves expand their knowledge of the language and

their confidence in using it. These Instructors help students learn to speak so that the

students can use speaking to learn. Learners of a language should build up a stock

of minimal responses, often idiomatic phrases used to indicate understanding,

agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is saying. Some

communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges-

a script. Greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations, obtaining information,

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making a purchase, and other functions that are influenced by social and cultural

norms often follow patterns or scripts [109].

In an article to ‘The Internet TESL Journal’, HayriyeKayi, (2006), from

University of Nevada has given some speaking activities to improve students’

communicative skills. Students learn to speak in the second language by

“interacting”. Communicative Language teaching is based on real life situations that

require communication. ESL teachers should create a classroom environment where

students have real life communication, authentic activities, and meaningful tasks that

promote oral language. 1. Discussions after a content based lesson 2. Role Play 3.

Simulations 4. Information Gap 5. Brain Storming 6. Story telling 7. Interviews 8.

Reporting 9. Playing Cards 10. Picture Narrating (individually) 11. Picture

Describing ( as a group). The teachers should let the students speak the target

language providing materials, tasks etc. Each student should participate in every

speaking activity. The teacher should ask eliciting questions like,“What do you

mean?”, provide vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking activities and

diagnose problems faced by students in speaking English [110].

Gerald Gillis, (2013), studying on “The Importance of Speaking skills’,

concludes that the four language skills are all interconnected. The ability to stand

before others and speak effectively is not an ordinary ability. Many people are

deathly afraid of public speaking. Others have little ability to form thoughts into

sentences and then deliver those words in a believable way. Employers have always

valued the ability to speak well. Speaking skills are important for career success, but

certainly not limited to one’s professional aspirations. Speaking skills can enhance

one’s personal life, thereby bringing about the well-rounded growth we should all

seek [111].

In the website of Colorado State University, (2014), in an article on “

Teaching Speaking”, (writing@CSU/The Writing Studio), an author has stated that

personalities play a large role in determining how quickly and how correctly

students accomplish this goal of speaking. Those who are risk takers being unafraid

of making mistakes will generally be more talkative, but with many errors that could

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become hard-to-break habits. Conservative, shy students may take a long time to

speak confidently, but when they do, their English often contains fewer errors and

they will be proud of their English ability. It is a matter of quantity versus quality,

and neither approach is wrong. The teachers should break the silence and get

students communicating with whatever English they can use, correct or not, and

selectively address errors that block communication [112].

Jenny Cheshire, (2014), has posted a vlog to the internet-You Tube ,

under the caption “A little blog about the vlog” and gives interesting information on

communication Skills. The Internet consists not only cat videos but blogs or vlogs in

the form of a new online genre. Vlogs typically feature a single speaker talking to a

camera and can be found on online platforms such as YouTube. Yet, while the

speaker addresses a non-present audience, he or she uses many of the features one

employs in face-to-face conversation. In face-to-face conversation, people can

indicate participant roles (for example, addressee or eavesdropper) through the

content of their speech, such as using terms of address (Jack, or Jane), personal

pronouns (you) and questions. In vlogs, the addressees are not present and the

speaker may not even know who they are. vloggers negotiate this uncertainty by

using strategies such as if-clauses (e.g. if you’re interested), medium-specific terms

(e.g. vlog fans, youtubers), and the default –general terms of address such as you or

you guys). Such strategies motivate the audience to respond to the vlog and leave

comments, which may refer back to the content of the vlog. In one example a

vlogger playfully referred to users of digital media that traditionally use keyboards

as keyboard cowboys. This metaphorical term motivated the audience to respond:

one viewer took up and extended the metaphor to comment in writing that other

users “maybe just didn’t like straddling their keyboards”. In real life, a conversation

usually has a history which includes previous conversations between the

participants, which may be mentioned or referenced. This is also the case with vlogs

(e.g. “If you’ve seen my latest vid…”. ) In vlogs speakers talk directly into a

camera, and have absolute control over topic and wording. Also, the vlog may

remain online until the vlogger removes it.Another difference is that in everyday

conversation people must be physically near each other. In vlogs, on the other hand,

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the physical space that the speaker/hearer are situated in, is not the space where

communication takes place. This property can be taken up creatively by the

vlogger, like in the following example:

1. and it’s four hours and ten minutes in running time.

2. if you want to win a copy of this,

3. all we ask is you tell us your favourite uh,

4. Doctor Who:.. uh dalek uh episode,

5. uhm .t and if you just put it in the comments which is just below down here, {points down}

6. uh and uh the winner will be drawn in seven days from now [151].

Kimps, Ditte, Davidse, Kristin and Cornillie Bert, (2014), set out to create

a typology of the basic functions of English TQs in speech. They trawled through

two corpora of spoken British English – because TQs typically occur in spoken

language. The Corpora were London Lund Corpus of Spoken English and the

Bergen Corpus of London Teenage English.

Overall, the researchers came up with five functions that a TQ can perform. Apart

from being a question i.e. a linguistic strategy for seeking information, TQs can

function as:

a statement

a statement-question blend

a response

a command or an offer (e.g. a TQ can negotiate a desired action)

The criteria used in the categorization procedures were the intonation on

the tag (whether the last part of the TQ is pronounced with rising or falling

intonation), the polarity of the tag (for example, in he`s fine, is he? there is constant

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polarity, as opposed to in he`s fine, isn`t he? where there is regular polarity,

meaning that the tag is negative but the preceding clause is not). The authors also

considered whether the TQ was the last item preceding a response (so-called turn-

final TQ) or whether the same speaker continued his or her turn in the discussion

after asking a TQ (so-called turn-medial TQ). 21% of the data consisted of TQs that

were statements not usually expecting a response. As a rule, these are turn-medial

and uttered with falling intonation on the tag. For example,

A: er he s not gonna give it to you twice, though, is he? cos, I don t

reckon he would give it to you twice.

B: he don t, he don t give it to you twice

The most common function (44%) of the TQs was a statement-question

blend; that is, the TQ states a specific proposition, but the speaker expects a

response. 88% of this type of TQ did get a response, usually confirming the

proposition. The speakers usually positioned themselves as more knowledgeable,

hence the statement part. A typical example of a statement-question blend is:

B: and he makes this hideous giggle, doesn’t he? A: yes, he does

Finally, a tiny (3%), but peculiar part of the data contains TQs initiating

an exchange where the speaker is demanding or offering a desired action, as in this

example: you know, Pat, don’t say that, will you?

These are usually pronounced with rising intonation on the tag, which

indicates uncertainty and thus softens the request that the addressee complies with

the command [152].

Tollins, Jackson and Fox Tree, Jean, E., (2014), state how the space-fillers

called backchannels by them help to develop a story while narrating: “Uh- huh,

Mhm, Wow” How Backchannels influence the Story?

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When we hear someone telling a story or narrating an event, it is not

uncommon to hear listeners responding with mhm, uh-huh, wow, oh, and the like. At

face value, these words or short phrases may not seem to contribute to the

conversation. Sure, they indicate attention and agreement, but how much do they

actually influence the story being told? In a recent study on such responses,

researchers , JacksonnTollin and Jean E. Fox Tree argue that these backchannels, as

they are called, actually do influence the narrative. Tolin and Fox Tree obtained

recordings of 30 conversations between undergraduate students. Conversations were

12 minutes in length and freely structured, but began with bad roommate

experiences (because we all know complaints generate the best stories). Several

relevant interactions were then extracted. In their data, the authors distinguished

between generic backchannels and specific backchannels. While both signal the

attention of the listener, generic backchannels typically display comprehension and

reception. Words like mhmand uh huh are considered generic backchannels: after

using these, speakers often continued their story by providing new information. On

the other hand, specific backchannels convey added information, showing the

listeners' reaction to what was just said. Specific backchannels include oh my god,

wow, and yeah. When a listener responded with a specific backchannel, the speaker

was observed to then elaborate on whatever the listener was responding to. Despite

being unaware of the full original contexts of these recordings, the participants

displayed some surprisingly consistent patterns. When a generic backchannel was

presented, the participants were more likely to simply continue the story by

presenting new information. To do so, they also used words such as well and so.

However, when a specific backchannel was presented, participants were more likely

to elaborate on the previous point in the story. They were also more likely to

explicitly acknowledge the backchannel itself by saying things like yeah.These

differences show that participants actually perceive the backchannels to be important

in determining their choice of what comes next. The backchannels therefore have a

role in shaping the story telling. When you use a specific backchannel such as wow,

you actually invite an elaboration, thereby steering the story, allowing the storyteller

to add emphasis and elaboration. Accordingly, the type of backchannel gives a sense

of predictability about what kind of information would follow it. This might make it

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easier for people to follow a particular conversation. To conclude, backchannels are

not simply passive, but do actively influence the outcome of storytelling. For

example, the researchers suggested that audiences who provide less specific

backchannels could result in a storyteller telling a... well... boring story. So perhaps

if you get bored by someone carrying on and on, you might like to try a specific

backchannel every once in a while! [153].

2.7 STUDIES ON THE WRITING SKILL

2.7.1 Studies in India

Kelu, (1990), worked on ‘Some Socio-Familial Correlates of Basic

Language Skills in the Mother tongue of Secondary School Pupils of Kerala’ and

found that (I) parental income, occupation and education, socio-economic status and

socio-familial status were positively correlated with listening comprehension,

handwriting speed & vocabulary, (ii) Achievement in hand writing quality was

facilitated by parental income, parental occupation, family acceptance of education

facility for learning at home and total socio-familial status, (iii) Socio-familial

status, cultural level of neighbourhood, family acceptance of education, learning

facilities at home and parental occupation were found to be significantly

differentiating high, average and low achievers in language skills [113].

Rajendran, M., (1991), studied on “Activity Centred Teachingof English-

An Experimental Study” using 50 students of IX Standard each in Control and

Experimental Groups as the random sample. The Control group was taught under

Conventional Methods and the Experimental Group was taught under Activity

Centred Method. It was found that there was no significant difference in the

achievement of the Writing Skill by both groups [114].

Madhavi Kesari,(2002), studied on “Writing in Regional Medium Schools

of Andhra Pradesh” and her objectives and findings are as follows: Learning to

write well is a difficult and lengthy process, as writing seems to require more effort

in terms of language and thought. Therefore, her study focused on the teaching

methodology of writing skill in classroom in order to;

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Examine the kind of writing activities employed by the teacher in

relation to second language.

Get an idea of the opportunities given to the learners in terms of

writing.

Examine the relevance and usefulness of the presently used writing

tasks and find out how they would help to develop writing skill in L2.

Suggest ways and means to employ writing activities apart from

those used in the classroom, in order to enhance writing skill.

The data was collected from five schools situated in Andhra Pradesh,

where a total number of thirty classes, six teachers and approximately four hundred

and fifty learners were examined.

The study comprised of the following stages:

1. Preliminary Study

2. Main Study

The preliminary study was conducted in order to get a general idea of the

teaching and learning conditions of L2 and identify the problems faced by the

students in writing.The main study was conducted in four stages – a) observation of

teaching procedures in the classroom; b) identification of activities that could lead to

improved writing skills; c) developing a checklist to identify the relevance and

significance of these activities to improve the writing skill and d) analyzing the

recorded data.

The student–teacher interviews recorded that the teachers found it

difficult to teach writing for various reasons such as poor economic background of

the students, limited exposure to the target language, lack of awareness on the part

of the teachers to teach writing as a skill. The findings of the study revealed that:

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The present approaches to the teaching of writing were not

systematic, as the teachers did not have an awareness of teaching

writing as a language skill through an integrated method.

Though some of the writing tasks identified in the classroom could

lead to the development of writing skill, most of the tasks were not

handled properly in terms of preparation and organization.

While teaching writing and other related activities, emphasis was

on the end product. Learners were not provided ample opportunities

to interact in the classroom, though an attempt was made by the

teacher to involve them in classroom activities, attention was not

paid to learner’s contribution in the classroom in terms of language

learning [115].

On Speech and Writing, Thirumalai, S., (2003), has expressed that written

language differs from oral language in structure and mode of functioning. Even the

minimal development of writing requires a high level of abstraction [116].

Chidambaram, K., (2005), made a study on the Learning Process of

English by Higher Secondary Students with reference to Dharmapuri District in

Tamil Nadu. Writing is the process of conveying one's thought through written

symbols. It is a difficult process. The writing skill includes:

Ability to shape the letters,

Ability to convert the ideas using the written symbols,

Ability to write without grammatical errors,

Ability to present and organize in a readable fashion, etc.

All these four skills of language are the bases for communication. Hence,

they form the base for the language proficiency-the ability to use the knowledge in

different tasks. Make adjustment and amendment to avoid errors in writings;

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students may practise to write stories, and the errors in the written items may be

spotted. Then the reasons for the occurrence of errors should be indicated to the

students. Further, editing training should also be given to the students. To avoid

orthographical errors, appropriate pronunciation drills should be given to the

students. By preventing the L1 sounds in their L2 pronunciation, the spelling errors

can be minimized in the learners’ writings [117].

Evarisha M. Syiem, (2012), studied on “ Improving the English Writing

Skills of Higher Secondary Students in Meghalaya, India, through a three week

Module”. Conclusions were made that it is possible to teach English writing skills

for secondary school level students based on proper pedagogical principles within 3

weeks. The course should include both class-room teaching and home assignments

and the emphasis should be on interactive teaching and active learning by the

students’ participation. The practice sessions should be logically arranged from

simple to complex, from letter-writing to free compositions. Ample opportunities

should be provided for informal feed-back, corrections and revisions [118].

Vinneta Sirohi and Avinash Kumar Singh, (2012), studied on “Innovative

Secondary Education for Skills Enhancement” and arrived at the following

conclusions: Education involves teaching and learning of knowledge, skills and

values. The term `skill’ means an ability to perform an activity. It is also used as

synonyms for `competence’, or `knack’ or `aptitude’. The term may have different

connotations depending on the context in which it is used. In recent years, the term

has gained currency in policy discourses on vocational education. Skills may be of

different types; basic and applied, hard and soft skills, marketable and non-

marketable skills, unitary and composite skills, etc. Basic skills are those foundation

skills such as, reading, writing and arithmetic which may become the base for

various other practical skills, using computer/internet, etc. The marketable skills are

those skills which are of direct relevance to the employers, and which are often

specified in the advertisement for the job. The skills may be categorised as

transferable or non-transferable. The transferable skills are those skills which are

useful in more than one kind of job. For example, computer literacy is a transferable

skill. Soft skills are personal attributes or personality traits that enhance an

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individual's interactions, job performance and career prospects such as, empathy,

good manners, sociability, teamwork, leadership, communication, a sense of

humour, etc [119].

Nirmala, Y., (2013), studied on “ Teaching Writing Using Picture Stories

as Tool at the High School Level: The Movement from Other Regulation to Self

Regulation” and concluded as follows: The study attempted to teach L2 writing to

rural ESL learners through picture stories. Writing is an important and difficult skill

for these learners. It is essential for them to pass in the examinations and pursue

higher studies. Poor L2 writing skill poses multiple problems for these learners, the

major ones being failure and scoring low percentage in the examinations. So this

study tried to help learners to find solutions for this problem, by improving their L2

writing to a certain extent. This study also tried to address the problems affecting the

learners’ academic success such as lack of exposure, poor reading habits, lack of a

conducive learning environment and so on, which affect their performance and

confidence. Therefore, in a way this study was an attempt by the researcher to look

into the issues that hinder the academic achievement of rural L2 learners. This study

had been taken up with the aim to contribute to the academic success of the under

achievers and disadvantaged learners. The learners became familiar with the genre

of story writing, use of punctuation, usage of tenses, prepositions and so on. This

was the result of a short-term teaching session. If such teaching would be imparted

for a longer period, undoubtedly their writing skill will improve substantially. The

study had achieved success in building confidence among ruralL2 learners to a

certain extent. Further, the study had also inspired and motivated not only the

learners but also the language teachers in the school. It has brought a positive

change in the attitude of the teachers. The awareness among the learners and

teachers about the factors that contribute to the learners’ overall academic success

had been evident to the researcher at the end of the study [120].

Jeya, R., (2014), submitted a paper on “Language Education” to the

International Conference in SRM University and she has expressed her ideas as

follows: Not many persons write even in the mother tongue. Paradoxically in

examinations this is the mostly required skill. In a sense the skill of writing is much

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easier than that of speaking. Time is available for reflection, for the correction of

sentence pattern and of the words in respect of their property and spelling. One

cannot be said to have acquired the skill in writing when he still thinks first in his

native language and translates into the target language. Thought should emerge

directly in second language [121].

Sakthivel, K., (2014), studied on “Influence of Multimedia Technology in

English Language Teaching” and found that at present the decreased students’

reading competence has become a major concern for reason that textual words are

replaced by sound and image, handwriting by keyboard input. The over-application

of multimedia technology would worsen the situation. The Computer Screen can’t

Substitute the Blackboard. Most of the teachers take the computer screen as the

blackboard. They have input exercises, questions, answers and teaching plans into

the computer and display them step by step, without taking down anything on the

blackboard or even the title of a lesson. It is known that teachers are supposed to

stimulate situations based on teaching and make the students to communicate in

English. In addition to this, traditional writing on blackboard is concise and teachers

can continue the practice [122].

2.7.2 Studies Abroad

Soles Derek Arthur John, (1989), worked on “Two Approaches to teach

college writing: A Comparative Study”. The current traditional approach makes use

of exercises in language skills, formal outlines, the imitation of models, and teacher

generated academic-expository assignments. The new Rhetorical Approach favours

Group work heuristics, and student centred assignments to improve students’ ability

to communicate through writing. The finding was despite a possible trend in favour

of the New Rhetorical Method, the two methods appear to be equally effective [123].

In the website, (2014), “Teachers Network Teacher Designed Activities

Most Popular Lesson Plans.htm”, activities to develop writing skills of the children

are given. One is described here as an enlightening example. For grades 3 to 8, the

activities are usable.

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Students write, bind and share their own individual books, with each page

focusing on an aspect of their lives such as family, feelings, experiences and

aspirations. The purpose: for students to learn the value of working towards a long-

term goal while reinforcing numerous language arts objectives and promoting each

student's uniqueness in a positive light. This project begins with an introduction into

publishing-related careers. Students are then able to see the parallel between what

they are doing in the classroom and the real world of publishing. The students take

on the jobs of author, illustrator, editor and promotor. The teacher is the publisher,

senior editor and bookbinder. The writing process is initiated with a class discussion,

which is followed by brainstorming. Students then practise classifying their ideas

around a theme, clustering a list of details and then using those details to structure

their writing. After revisions and editing, students are ready to copy their writings

onto a page of their book. Illustrating the page is also an important task, with

students encouraged to make their pictures bright, big and meaningful. Next comes

the Title Page, Table of Contents, Dedication Page and most important - the binding

of the book. Now the students are ready to read their books to others. Students are

taught how to stand, speak, and pace their reading for a large audience. DCPS Major

System Priorities: Standard English, Job Preparedness. The Students: "All Bound

Up" can be used with students in grade one through six, and is appropriate for use

with small and large groups. In addition ESOL and Exceptional Students will benefit

from the program [124].

Studying on “Simple ways to Assess the Writing skills of students with

learning Disabilities”. Stephen Isaacson of Portland States Univesity,(1996), has

given his views. The Writing Process can be assessed through Observational and

self-observational check lists. The writing product can be evaluated on five product

factors: Fluency, Content, Conventions, Syntax and Vocabulary. Writing samples

should also be assessed across a variety of purposes for writing to give a complete

picture of a student’s writing performance across different text structures and genres.

These simple classroom measures can fulfil various functions of assessment

including identifying strengths and weaknesses , planning instruction, evaluating

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instructional activities, giving feedback, monitoring performance, and reporting

progress [125].

Richard Hudson,(2001), studied on “Grammar Teaching and Writing

Skills - the Research Evidence” concluded that grammar teaching improves

children’s writing skills. Unless the student gets feeling for sentence patterning, his

own sentence patterns will show many obvious defects. Grammar teaching could be

surreptitious, as it were, with a clear underlying theory of grammar but minimal use

of grammatical terminology. It seems reasonable to assume that it is at least in part

because they are exercises in the production of language, and specifically in the

production of written language, so they feed much more directly into the child's

growing repertoire of productive skills than exercises in grammatical analysis do. In

short, they are more closely integrated into the teaching of writing, so the skills

acquired in isolation are more likely to transfer directly into a usable skill [126].

Sunkyoung Yoon, et al., (2002), studied on “The Evolution of Asian ESL

students perceptions of Grammar: Case Studies of nine learners” and arrived at the

following conclusions: Grammar is not important for general communication but

important for academic purpose. Grammar is not important for Speaking but

important for Writing. All the students expect that grammar learning provides them

with ‘flexibility’ of using the language instead of “ a straight jacket”. Grammar was

taught as a Content or a major component of the syllabus under Grammar

Translation Method or Audio Lingual Method. But grammar is in a completely

different instructional place in Communicative Approach since Communicative

Approach views language as an instrument of communication. Language teaching is

aimed at enabling learners to use language communicatively and courses should thus

be “organised around subject matter, tasks/projects, or semantic notions and / or

pragmatic functions instead of grammar [127].

Trudy Wallace et al., (2004), studied on “Teaching Speaking, Listening

and Writing” and concluded that note-taking, identifying a central idea, outlining,

drafting and editing are writing acts. Computers can be both harmful and helpful in

writing and learning to write. Students can be encouraged to write by saying one in

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ten million can attain the status of a great writer who is long influential and long

remembered. Direct contacts with professional writers such as novelists and news

reporters may be inspirational. Inquiry and discovery also inspire great writing [128].

Gay Ivey and Marianne I. Baker, (2004), studied on “Phonics Instruction

for Older Students? Just Say No” and reached the conclusions: Some struggling

readers need to think more about the structure of words. An interactive and

connected approach, such as word study, enables students to manipulate key words

from their reading and begin extending generalizations to unfamiliar words, thereby

strengthening not only reading skills but also writing and spelling skills. Instruction

to facilitate word knowledge begins with high-interest, easy reading and pulls high-

utility words directly from the pages of students' current texts [129].

Richard Andrews et al., (2005), studied on “ The Effect of Grammar

Teaching (Sentence Combining) in English on 5 to 16 year olds’ accuracy and

quality in written composition ”arrived at the following conclusions: The teaching of

formal grammar is ineffective; and the teaching of sentence combining is one that is

effective. The future development of teaching materials and approaches must

include recognition of the effectiveness of sentence combining [130].

Carol Booth Olson, (2007), led a group of members California Writing

Project in conducting the study “ A Cognitive Strategies Approach To Reading and

Writing Instruction for English Language Learners in Secondary School” in a large,

urban, low-SES school district where 93% of the students speak English as a second

language and 69% are designated Limited English Proficient. Over an eight-year

period, a relatively stable group of 55 secondary teachers engaged in ongoing

professional development implemented a cognitive strategies approach to reading

and writing instruction, making visible for approximately 2000 students per year the

thinking tools experienced readers and writers access in the process of meaning

construction. The purpose of the study was to assess the impact of thisapproach on

the reading and writing abilities of English language learners (ELLs) in all 13

secondary schools in the district. Students receiving cognitive strategies instruction

significantly out-gained peers on holistically scored assessments of academic

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writing for seven consecutive years. Treatment-group students also performed

significantly better than control-group students on GPA, standardized tests, and

high-stakes writing assessments. Findings reinforce the importance of having high

expectations for ELLs; exposing them to a rigorous language arts curriculum;

explicitly teaching, modelling and providing guided practice in a variety of

strategies to help students read and write about challenging texts; and involving

students as partners in a community of learners. What distinguishes the project is its

integrity with respect to its fidelity to three core dimensions: Teachers and students

were exposed to an extensive set of cognitive strategies and a wide array of

curricular approaches to strategy use (comprehensiveness) in a manner designed to

cultivate deep knowledge and application of those strategies in reading and writing

(density) over an extended period of time (duration). The consistency of positive

outcomes on multiple measures strongly points to the efficacy of using this approach

with ELLs [131].

From their study on “Students’ Mistakes and Errors in English Writing:

Implications for Pedagogy”, Harunur Rashid Khan and Md. Zahid Akter, (2011),

from East West University, say that though English is a compulsory subject from

grade 1 to 12 with further emphasis on various skills at the undergraduate level, it

does not even guarantee any reasonable achievement in Writing for majority of the

students. Students commit more mistakes in spelling to pronoun. Their Sentence

Level mistakes indicate a poor command of syntactic accuracy. Word and Sentence

level mistakes appear to be quite alarming underpinning innovative means of

teaching to improve current state of student writing in English at their primary and

secondary level [132].

Michael Swan and Catherine Walter, (2013), have stated that discourse

markers are largely used in informal speech and formal writing, in their

book,“Advanced Oxford English Grammar Course”. Discourse markers are words

and expressions which help to structure spoken exchanges and written text. They

can communicate several things. Discourse markers can introduce or clarify a talk.

They can show the type of communication that is going on. Some are used in all

kinds of discourse, some mostly in formal writing, and others mainly in informal

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speech. Most discourse markers are adverbs or adverbial expressions. Some are

conjunctions: Quite frankly, we are having a bad year. I guess, looking back on it, I

was her toy boy. My name is Katrina by the way. Discourse markers showing

changes of topic are: now, all right, right, OK, by the way, to sum up, briefly, in

short, first of all, firstly, secondly, mind you, still, look, look here, certainly, of

course, but, etc., [154].

2.8 CONCLUSION-AN ANOLOGY

From these studies, it is found that innovative techniques and methods are

employed to develop the four skills of pupils who study English as a second

language. Research has been done on Oral Method, Programmed Learning,

Structural Approach, Language Arts Modules, Computer-aided Method, Cognitive

Strategies Approach etc. These methods are independent variables. The four

language skills are the Dependent variables. There is wide scope for the study of the

impact of activity centred approach on these four dependent variables LSRW and

their sub-skills. But in this present study, the impact of the activities on the

communicative or expressive skills of the slow learners is attempted. As the disabled

children, slow learners and the underachievers are generally neglected and ignored

in the classroom, the researcher was motivated to plunge into this area. Studies on

the sub-skills which develop communicative competency are necessary to develop a

suitable, flexible curriculum which caters to the needs of the slow learners. Effective

instructional processes can be evolved which in turn would pave the way for a better

national standard. A good standard in the Expressive skills will help the slow

learners to stand on their own legs. If an easy, activity-involved curriculum is

prepared, the drop out will go down in schools. Campus problems will vanish. The

atmosphere in the classroom will be improving.

The researcher can probe into the neglected areas which need more

concentration. Review of related literature enables the investigator to get to the

frontier in the field of his problem and to be aware of the research possibilities that

have been overlooked. His focus on untrodden areas may pave the way to break new

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grounds and come out successful with new theories and principles which may be of

permanent value in the field of teaching and learning.

Elaborative, analytical and exhaustive studies have been made in India on

low achievement and slow learning.

From these studies it is found that innovative techniques and methods are

employed to develop the four skills of pupils who study English as a second

language. But under Activity Centred Teaching of English, research has gained

momentum in countries which use English as a second language. So much research

has been done on Oral Method, Programmed Learning, Structural Approach,

Language Arts Modules, Multimedia Approach, etc. These methods are independent

variables. The four language skills are the dependent variables. There is wide scope

for the study of the impact of activity centred approach on these four dependent

variables LSRW and also their sub-skills. In Tamil Nadu State of India, Activity

Based Method of Teaching was introduced five years back in primary schools. Up to

IVth Std, ABL (Activity Based Learning) Method was used. The teachers started the

classes with a ladder( a chart with logos printed on it) and ABL cards (Letter cards,

Word cards, Sentence cards, Picture cards etc) From V std to VIII std, the teachers

taught under Active Learning Methodology introducing interesting activities in the

class. Writing a Mind-map occupied a predominant place in evaluation. The teachers

agitated against the new method of teaching. But the State Govt. was stubborn in

bringing about the change in the learning system of school. But the government

changed the new method as Equality Based Education, by upgrading the State Board

Syllabus equivalent to the Central Board Syllabus of the schools run by the Central

Government. The governments have changed. The Universal Education Scheme

introduced by the Central Government and adopted by the State Government with

liberal grants from the Centre has been wound up. As far as the English language

teaching and learning is concerned, the new way of introducing the structures in

teaching as expounded by Jeremy Harmer has not been communicated to the

teaching community. So studies on the effect of using this method are necessary to

develop a suitable, flexible curriculum which caters to the needs of our pupils with

varied social psychological background. Effective instructional processes can be

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evolved which in turn would pave the way for a better national standard. There is

intense competition among the educated unemployed of the developing nations to

secure jobs in advanced nations. A good standard in English will help the future

generation of India. Examinations conducted by the Teachers Recruitment Boards

(TET) are very tough. Even if the slow learners by hook or by crook get through the

General Degree and B.Ed courses, they cannot jump over the TET, the Teacher

Eligibility Test. The slow learners identified in the VIII class should be taught under

an easy, simplified syllabus and directed towards the Polytechnic Courses. This

study may throw light on the need of framing an interesting, activity based

curriculum for the slow learners. Further the teaching community has not so far been

enlightened of the easy but scientific way of identifying the slow learners in a class.

This study shall show a way of preparing a Verbal Intelligence test paper for a class

and standardizing it for using it in the school. Right from first Standard to twelfth

Standard, Verbal Intelligence Test Papers may be framed adding more some kinds

of questions to every class upward. The researchers have so far been using the costly

Practical Intelligence Kit imported from abroad by some agents based in Delhi or

Mumbai. The teachers have no access to see those things. The Education

Department is not permitted to buy those kits and supply to schools for pursuing the

studies on I.Q of the children. So this study will guide the teachers in remote

villages to understand the concepts of standard scores and the use of them to find out

the slow learners.