Chapter 2

STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY

Every society manifests certain social and cultural traits which differentiate one

community from another. Community is a collection of groups of people who share

basic cultural characteristics, socio-economic patterns and common territory. Morris and

Marsh (1988) state that the most important feature, however, is that member of a

community feel that they have more in common with each other than with neighbouring

groups. This sense of communality both binds the members of a group together and

distances them from non-members ofthe group.

2.1 The Nagas

The Nagas consist of several sub-ethnic groups and each group has its own distinct

language and well-demarcated respective ethnic territory. The most striking feature of

the Naga situation is the emergence and consolidation of the identity as a single "socio-

cultural and political" community. Traditionally, Nagas live in villages having

autonomous social and cultural systems. The Nagas are not a linguistically homogenous

community but they have common history, social, cultural and economic system.

According to anthropological classification, the Nagas belong to Mongoloid stock and

Tibeto-Burman linguistic group.

Let us briefly examine the historical evolution of the term- Naga. Many writers

have attempted to sort out the derivation of the term Naga. There had been many

theories and suggestions. Hitherto, the origin is shrouded in mystery and has always led .I

to controversy. As much as the origin of the Naga people is lost in the mist of history,

29

both the meaning and origin of the name Naga is unknown. There has been considerable

speculation on that, but all that can be said for sure is that outsiders coined the name.

Various interpretations of the word and who first coined it have been speculated upon

but so far no authoritative version has emerged. Noted Naga scholar Horam (1975:21)

said, "(t)he Nagas themselves- and especially the border Nagas, as in all probability the

name was firstly used for them by the plainsmen- are unable to throw much light beyond

a few stories regarding the meaning of the word."

Let us look at the various suggestions given by early writers in the evolution of

the word Naga. Johnstone (1896) suggests that the word Naga may be derived from the

Assamese word "Noga", meaning "naked". This was substantiated by Grierson (1903)

that the term Naga is said to be derived from the Assamese applied to the hill people in

the hinterland of the Lakhimpur district and Sibs agar district of Assam. Hutton (1921)

and Mills (1926) suggest that the word Naga is derived from the word "Nanga"

meaning, "mountaineer" and also from Sanskrit "Nog" a mountain or inaccessible place.

However, all these assumptions or derivations suffer from logical incoherency because

all the hill peoples are not Nagas.

Among the Naga writers like Tajenjuba (as quoted in Shimray, 1985:39) state

that, "(t)he name Naga originated from the Kachari language." According to Tajenjuba,

the Nagas are known to the Kacharis as "Nahngra" meaning warrior or fighter. The

earnest conversion of this term in Assamese becomes "Nhuga", the anglicised becomes

Naga. Horam (1975) postulates originality from the Tangkhul Naga language­

"Naokhoka", meaning a very brave child. According to him, in the course of time,

Naokhoka was known as Naokha. When Naokha people came into contact with the

Ahoms of Assam, the Ahom called them Noga in their own peculiar way.

30

Many Naga groups share the same similar story regarding their historical origin.

Almost all the Naga groups point to Makhel and its surrounding areas as their place of

origin and dispersion. Makhel is a small village in Mao-Maram Nagas in Senapati

District of Manipur state. The Angami Nagas, Sem~ Nagas, Lotha · Nagas, Tangkhul

Nagas, Mao Nagas and other Naga groups of Manipur name Makhel as their place of

origin. Some scholars established the origin of Nagas to the southeast Asian countries.

The historian Chatterjee, as quoted in Naorem (1988) maintains that from 2000 B.C.

onwards, Sino-Tibetan speakers from China pushed south and west and entered India

and people (Nagas) settled in Samjok area in Myanmar. A majority of the Naga groups

refer to their dispersal from Makhel. They erect megaliths at Makhel in memory of their

having dispersed from there to the various directions. Even now the erected megaliths

remain intact.

The origin of the Naga people is still obscure and poorly documented. There is

an inevitable controversy in the derivation of the word Naga. Even among the early

writers on Nagas there is confusion in its originality. Today, different views have

cropped up in the derivation of the word Naga especially between the colonial's

assumption and the Naga scholars. The dichotomy of outsiders' view and the insider's

(read as Nagas) analysis need much attention. Nevertheless, it is because most of the

Naga history is recorded in traditional oral history that passed down from one generation

to another. Another source ofNaga history is the official documentation made during the

reign of the British and colonial anthropologists. There are as many versions as there are

communities and still more about the origin of the Nagas.

The Nagas have travelled a long way as a geographical and cultural entity. It is

their strong culture that developed an indomitable spirit of sustenance and continuity.

Naga geography and history have a unique relationship resulting in time into strong

31

geographical regionalism into her body politic, yet contained by the cultural unity. The

forces and processes bringing about unity among the various Naga groups are mainly

due to their cultural affinity, geographical and political aspirations.

Nevertheless, the name Nagas has come to stay and is being increasingly used by

all and sundry. Since India's Independence it has become prominent in the socio­

political activities. The various Naga groups traditionally lived in well-defined ethnic

territories. But, in the process oflndian State re-organisations and subsequent emergence

of state political boundaries cut across the Naga ethnic territories. Today, the

Zeliangrong Nagas are divided into three administrative units, that is, Manipur State,

Nagaland State and Assam State

There are more than 40 odd Naga groups inhabiting the contiguous geographical

region of Indo-Myanmar (Burma) frontier. The following are the various Naga groups

based on the list provided by Naga social organisations like Naga Hoho, Naga Students

Federation (NSF) and Naga Peoples' Movement for Human Rights (NPMHR). The

Naga communities living in the present Nagaland State are: 1. Angami 2. Ao 3. Chang 4.

Chakhesang 5. Khiamungan 6. Konyak 7. Makhori 8. Sema 9. Rengma 10. Yimchunger

11. Kalya Kongnyu 12. Chirr 13. Sangtam 14. Tikhir 15. Phom 16. Zeliangrong (Zeme,

Liangmei, Rongmei & Puimei) and 17. Pochury. Naga groups from the state of Manipur

are: 1.Anal 2. Maring 3. Moyon 4. Monsang 5. Lamkang 6. Chothe 7. Tangkhul8. Mao

9. Poumei 10. Maram 11. Thangal12. Tarao 13. Chiru 14. Kharam 15. Koireng, and 16.

Zeliangrong (Zeme, Liangmei, Rongmei & puimei). The Naga Groups from Arunachal

Pradesh State are the Tangsa, Wancho, and Nocte. Some of the Zeliangrong Naga is

found in the district of North Cachar Hills of Assam state (Some Naga Groups which fall

into the adminstration of Myanmar (Burma) are the Konyak, Somra-Tangkhul, Phom

and Yimchunger).

32

2.2 The Tangkhul Nagas

Tangkhul Nagas is one of the sub-groups ofthe Naga ethnic group. The Tangkhul Nagas

traditionally inhabit eastern region of Manipur State and are predominant in Ukhrul

district (see Appendix 1). The immediate Naga neighbours are Chakhesang Nagas and

Angami Nagas ofNagaland State, Mao Nagas, the Kabui Nagas and Thangal Nagas of

Senapati district (Manipur), Maring Nagas and Anal Nagas of Chandel district and

Meiteis community of the lmphal valley. The international boundary (Indo-Myanmar)

cut the Tangkhul Naga region into two nations, that is, India (Nagas) and Myanmar

(Nagas). The larger number of Tangkhul Naga population dwells on the Indian side of

the frontier. On the Myanmar side they are found along the Samra hills track (they are

known as Somra-Tangkhul).

According to Hodson (1911) the Tangkhul Nagas resolve their origin into at least

two-three sources. The first group connect themselves with the Imphal-valley and

migrated to the hills on account of the heat and mosquitoes. According to the second

group of traditions, the village of Hundung (one ofthe Tangkhul village) is the centre of

their dispersion and the stories declare that they sprang from immigrants from the village

of Makhel. The third set of traditions refers to a period rather later and mainly deals with

the growth of new villages and their establishment by emigrants from older villages

which suffered from an excess of population. Brown (1868-9:118) states that the origin

of the Tangkhul given by themselves. "They say they came out of a cave in the earth at a

place called Murrinphy in the hills, about four days' journey north-east of the

Munnipore valley. They attempted to leave this cave one by one, but a large tiger, who

was on the watch, devoured them successively as they emerged. Seeing this, the

occupiers of the cave by a stratagem- throwing out the effigy of a man they had dressed

up- distract the attention of the tiger, on seeing the numbers before him, fled. They

33

placed a large stone on the top of a high hill near this spot as a mark from which

situation they spread in the hills around."

Horam ( 1977) holds the Makhel theory where all the Naga groups are dispersed.

He further stressed that after residing in Makhel for many years they found the place too

small and "departed" towards north-east and other direction, and settled down. The

history of the origin of Tangkhul Nagas and their early migration is lost. Shirnray

(1985:30-31) also emphasises that the Tangkhul Nagas are descendants of Makhelians.

According to him, "(a)fter departure from Makhe/, the party that went to the right (north-

east) were the Tangkhul and Somra. This party went on cutting down the banana trees so

that those who would be coming after them may follow the sign. However, since banana

trees sprouted quickly, the later wave of migration followed the left party thinking that it

would be difficult to catch them (Tangkhul). This is why majority of the Nagas are

found in Senapati, Tangmenglong and Chandel district of Manipur and Nagaland State.

The Tangkhul and Samra Nagas were very small in number compared to the other party I

that went leftward."

The Tangkhul Naga country is divided into eight traditional regions. They are (i)

Raphei (North), (ii) Somrah (North-East), (iii) Rem Khunyang (East), (iv) Vaikhang

(South-East), (v) Kamo (South), (vi) Kharao (Khaorei} (West), (vii) Kathur (Central),

(viii) Kharaorui (South-West). These divisions are not created for administrative

purposes. But these traditional regions have been there since a long period of time. This

division is not political in nature. Horam (1977:25) substantiates this traditional division

as, " ... in any festive congregations or when people of a village passed through other

villages, they could always identifY themselves. For instance, the people from Raphei

region are known for their expertise in pot making and salt making. Similarly, the

Kharao are expert weavers and even today they produce the bulk of the cloth used by

34

the Tangkhul Nagas." In olden days, people in the Kharao region were the only

weavers; it is only recently that housewives and young women of other region have

begun to weave. The Kamo and Somra are fine workmen with cane and bamboo and

produce a variety of baskets and mats mention may be made of their attractive Liphan

(an oval shaped table woven with a special bamboo reed used for setting out meals).

2.3 Tangkhul Naga Population

According to 1991 population census, the total Tangkhul Nagas living in Manipur State

are recorded 1,07,244 persons, of which there are 54,753 males whereas females are

52,491. The table 2.1(a) and (b) show the total Tangkhul Naga population in_Manipur

State. In Ukhrul district, the Tangkhul Naga population is 1,01,878 persons. This

indicates about 5,399 Tangkhul Nagas live out side the administrative unit of Ukhrul

district. The Tangkhul Nagas constitute 93.2 per cent to Ukhrul district's total

population.

TABLE 2.1(a) Total Tangkhul Naga population in Manipur Population Decadal Growth Rate (in Percentage

Percenta~e) Chan~e 1971 1981 1991 1971-81 1981-91

Total 57,851 79,029 1,07,244 36.60 35.70 -0.90

Males 28,635 40,114 54,753 40.10 36.49 -3.61

Females 29,216 38,915 52,491 33.20 34.88 1.68

Source: Office of the Registrar General and Census CommissiOner. 1991. Series 13, Manipur, Part IX, Special Tables for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, Manipur. New Delhi: Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner.

TABLE 2.1(b) Tangkhul Naga Population in Ukhrul district, 1991 Community Population Percentage

Tangkhul Naga 1,01,878 93.23

Others (including Thadou-Kukis, non-tribals) 7,397 6.77

District's total population 1,09,275 100.00

Source: Same as Table 2.1(a)

Grow tit Rate: The table I (a) presents the absolute total Tangkhul Naga population and

percentage decadal growth rate. Generally, the changes in population are a result of the

inter-play of three factors which include fertility, mortality and mobility. In the decade

1981-1991, the growth rate is 35.7 per cent however, the percentage show a slight

decline from the decade 1971-1981 which is recorded 36.6 per cent. The growth rate

among the males had declined by 3.6 per cent but for the females there is slight increase

in the last decade.

Sex Ratio: In demography, sex ratio holds an important place in examination of

demographic characteristics. Sex is considered to be a biological characteristic that

divides human beings into males and females. Sex ratio of any region and society is

influenced by factors such as biological, social, religious, and economic. Table 2.2

indicates the sex composition ofthe Tangkhul Nagas. In 1971, there was a high sex ratio

among the Tangkhul Naga society but a decline can be observed in the subsequent

decades. The 1991 population census reveals low sex ratio of 958 females per 1000

males.

TABLE2 2 S . f . T kh IN ex ra 10m angt u aga P I t• opu a 100 Sex ratio (females per I 000 males) Decline in Number of female

1971 I 19811 1991 1971-81 1 1981-91 1020 I 970 I 958 soj 12

Source: same as Table 2.1

Literacy: The population census of India defines literacy as the ability to read, write and

understand. The literacy rate is shown in table 2.3. Here the literacy rate has been

calculated including the age group 0-6 years. In 1991 population census, the literacy rate

in Tangkhul Naga society is 55.3 per cent, which had increased by 8.4 per cent from the

last census. Among the males, the proportion of 66.4 per cent are literate whereas in the

36

females the proportion is 43.6. However, during the decade 1981 to 1991, the literacy

among the female shows a high growth rate of 10.1 per cent.

TABLE 2.3 Literacy ate m angl u aga popu atwn R . T kh IN I . Literacy Rate(in Percentage) Percentage Change

1981 1991 1981-91

Persons 46.92 55.35 8.43

Males 59.96 66.43 6.47

Females 33.54 43.67 10.13

Source: same as Table 2.1

Rural and Urban Population: The table 2.4 indicates the proportion of rural and urban

population of the Tangkhul Nagas. The majority of the Tangkhul Naga population lives

in villages. In 1971 population census, the proportion ofTangkhul Nagas living in urban

areas is about 1.8 per cent. The 1991 population census recorded it as 2. 7 per cent.

T BLE2 4P A roportwn o fR ura an dUb P I . r an opu atlon Residence Population (in Percenta;:e) Percentage of decadalgrowth rate

1971 1981 1991 1971-81 1981-91

Rural 98.19 90.40 97.31 20.49 46.11

Urban 1.85 10.62 2.70 86.17 -169.16

Source: same as Table 2.1

Work Force Participation: The pattern of work force participation rates varies from

region to region as well as among the society of a particular region. The differences in

the participation rate of working population become apparent even at micro level (read

as village level). The type and nature of economic activities of a region reflects the level

of its development. The work force is comprised of persons who can work and choose to '"

do so. As said, this is often called "economically active" population.

Information on work and economic activities of the individual was collected in

India right from 1872 population census. However, the concepts and definitions of

economic activities underwent changes from time to time, although efforts were made to

37

maintain unifonnity and comparability to the extent possible. Suri eta! (1988:1) defined

main economic activities as, "(e)conomically active person may be either employed,

underemployed or unemployed. The persons who are not economically active can be

students, rentier, pensioners, beggars, etc., Those who are employed were further

classified according to the nature of their job (occupation, industry, status, etc.,)."

Population Census of India 2001 1 defined work (economic activity) as, participation in

any economically productive activity with or without compensation, wages or profit.

Such parti"cipation may be physical and /or mental in nature. Work involves not only

actual work but also includes effective supervision and direction of work. It even

includes part time help or unpaid work and fann, family, enterprise or in any other

economic activity.

In population census, economic data were collected on the basis of work. The

population was divided into two classes, "workers" and "non-workers". "Work" was

defined as "any person whose main activity was participation in any economically I

productive work either by his/her physical or by his/her mental activity." Workers are

those persons who worked on any one of the days during the reference period of one

week prior to the date of enumeration. They will be considered workers if they had

participated in any activity like trade, profession, service or business. Also, seasonal

work like cultivation, livestock keeping, plantation, some types of household industry,

etc., which are not carried on throughout the year was also considered work.

However, in recent times, the population census adopted the criteria of work

based on duration of hours and days (the definition is same as above). The entire

population is divided into three categories that are, main workers, marginal workers, and

non-workers. The main worker is defined as those who have worked in some economic

activity over a period of six months. In other words, the main workers were those who

38

had worked for the major part of the year preceding the enumeration. Marginal workers,

on the other hand, were those who have worked any time at all in the year preceding the

enumeration but have not worked for the major part of the year. Non-workers were those

who have had not participated in any gainful preceding of enumeration. The categories

included under non-workers namely, housewife, students, dependant, retired persons,

beggars and vagrants, inmates of jail and mental institutes.

The population Census of India classified the main economic activities into nme

industrial categories. The economic activities are as follows: (i) Cultivators, (ii)

Agricultural Labourers, (iii) Livestock, Forestry, Fishing, Hunting, Plantations and

Orchard and allied activities, (iv) Mining and Quarrying, (v) Manufacturing processing,

Servicing and Repairs in- (a) Household industry, (b) Other than household industry,

(vi) Constructions, (vii) Trade and Commerce, (viii) Transport, Storage and

Communication and (ix) Other Services

All the nine industrial categories of main workers can be grouped into three

economic sectors that is, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. In the primary sector, the

first four categories that is, Cultivator, Agricultural labourer, Livestock, Forestry,

Fishing, Hunting, Plantation and Orchard and Allied activities, and Mining and

Quarrying. The secondary sector includes Manufacturing, Processing Servicing and

Repairs in- (a) Household Industry, and (b) Other than household industry, and

Constructions. Tertiary sector comprises Trade and Commerce, Transport, Storage and

Communication, and Other Services. The categorisation into three economic sectors is

based on the nature of the production process of the commodity or commodities

produced in the particular sectors.

Work force participation of the Tangkhul Nagas has been shown in Table 2.5. The

table shows that in 1991 the total work force participation is 45,038 persons. In 1981

39

population census, 47.5 per cent of the total Tangkhul Nagas were considered as main

workers. Against the male work participation rate of 45.3 per cent female participation

in various economic activities was 49.7 per cent. However, in 1991 census the

proportion of total work force is declined to 42 per cent. The decline is more prominent

among the female population with 41.9 per cent whereas, the male proportion dropped

down to 42 per cent.

As far as occupational diversification is concerned, the bulk of Tangkhul Naga

workers are engaged in the primary activities. The table shows that 83.2 per cent of

Tangkhul Naga workers were in the primary sector in 1991. The female workers

engaged in the primary sector account very high proportion of 94.1 per cent whereas

male participation is 72.8 per cent in the primary sector. The secondary sector remains

insignificant having only 1.8 per cent. In this sector we observed that the proportion is

much lesser among the females (1.2 per cent) than males (2.3 per cent). In the tertiary

sector, a low proportion was observed and the percentage recorded is only 14.9 per cent. I

The female population is much lesser (4.5 per cent) than males which accounts for about

24.8 per cent.

There is a significant change in primary sector in the decade 1981-1991. In this

decade, the percentage has declined by 3.6 per cent. The percentage decline is found

higher among the males (4.5 per cent) against females (1.6 per cent). The tertiary sector

indicates slight improvement in the proportion.

40

TABLE25W kF or orce P .. f R t T kh IN art1c1pa 1on a es among an~ u a_g_as Main Workers Primary Secondary Tertiary Percentage Change

1981-91 1981 1991 1981 1991 1981 1991 1981 1991 p s

T 37540 45038 32612 37495 608 820 4323 6723

(%) (47.50) (42.00) (86.87) (83.25) (1.60) (1.82) (11.53) (14.93) 3.62 0.22

M 18188 23039 14071 16774 443 544 3672 5451

(%) (45.34) (42.08) (77.36) (72.80) (2.43) (2.36) (20.21) (24.84) -4.56 -0.07

F 19352 21999 18541 20721 161 276 651 1272

(%) (49.73) (41.91) (95.80) (94.19) (0.83) (1.25) (3.35) (4.56) -1.61 0.42

T- Total, M-Males, F- Females P- Primary, S- Secondary, T- Tertiary Source: Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner. 1981, & 1991. Special Tables for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, Series I 3, Manipur, Part IX. New Delhi: Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner.

It is clear from the above analysis that the primary activity dominate in the

Tangkhul Naga economy. Table 2.6 shows the absolute and percentage of the Tangkhul

Nagas participation in nine industrial categories.

!-Cultivation: Among the nine industrial categories, cultivation constitutes the largest

proportion recording 80.3 per cent workers to total main workers. Nearly 70.7 per cent

male workers and 90.3 per cent female workers are engaged in cultivation activity.

However, during the two census years we observe a decline in the proportion of the

Tangkhul Naga workers engaged in cultivation. The decline is more prominent among

the males than females.

If-Agricultural Labour: The population engaged in agricultural labour is relatively small.

This implies that the Tangkhul Nagas cultivate their fields by themselves.

III-Livestock, Forestry, Hunting, Fishing, Plantation and Orchard and Allied Activities:

T

3.40

4.63

1.19

these activities is very insignificant with only 0. 7 per cent. The fact is that such activities

are considered as important economic activities ofthe Nagas.

IV-Mining and quarrying: The workers engaged in these activities are negligible.

V-Household Industries and other than the Household Industries: The proportion

engaged in these activities is also found very minimal.

VI-Constructions: In this sector, male population is recorded 1.4 per cent.

VII& VIII-Trade and Commerce and Transport, Storage and Communication: A very

low percentage ofTangkhu1 Naga workers participate in these sectors.

IX-Other Services: In 1991, we observe a considerable proportion of Tangkhul Naga

workers engaged in this activity accounting for about 13.4 per cent. Sex-wise, female

population is found very low with 5.2 per cent against male population which recorded

21.32 per cent of workers.

42

TABLE 2 6 T kh I N . ang1 u k . D'ffi t I d t . I C t aga wor ers m 1 eren n us na a egones I II III IV V(a) V(b) VI VII VIII IX

1981 1991 1981 1991 1981 1991 1981 1991 1981 1991 1981 1991 1981 1991 1981 1991 1981 1991 1981

T 32241 36175 253 963 117 326 1 31 126 249 84 178 394 393 126 423 63 229 4134

(%) (85.88) (80.32) (0.67) (2.14) (0.31) (0.72) (0.00) (0.07) (0.34) (0.55) (0.22) (0.40) (1.05) (0.87) (0.34) (0.94) (0.17) (0.51) (11.01)

M 13869 16,302 93 413 108 304 1 25 38 67 67 138 338 339 104 326 60 212 3508

(%) (76.25) (70.76) (0.51) (1.79) (0.59) (1.32) (0.01) (0.11) (0.21) (0.29) (0.37) (0.60) (1.86) (1.47) (0.57) (1.41) (0.33) (0.92) (19.29)

F 18372 19,873 160 550 9 22 0 6 88 182 17 40 56 54 22 97 3 17 626

(%) (94.94) (90.34) (0.83) (2.50) (0.05) (0.10) (0.00) (0.03) (0.45) (0.83) (0.09) (0.18) (0.29) (0.25) (0.11) (0.44) (0.02) (0.08) (3.23)

T- Total, M- Males, F- Females

I- Cultivators, II-Agricultural Labourer, III- Livestock, Forestry, Fishing, Hunting, Plantation and Orchard and Allied Activities, IV- Mining and Quarrying, V- Manufacturing, Processing, Servicing, Repairs in (a) Household Industry, and (b) Other than Household Industry, VI­Constructions, VII-Trade and Commerce, VIII- Transport, Storage and Communication and IX- Other Services.

Source: Same as Table 2.5

43

1991

6,071

(13.48)

4,913

(21.32)

1158

(5.26)

To sum up, Tangkhul Nagas constitute the bulk of population in the Ukhrul

district. However, there is slight decline in the decadal growth rate but the absolute

number added in the decade 1981-1991 is much larger than the decade 1971-1981. The

percentage of decadal growth of male population is slightly higher than female

population. Sex ratio in Tangkhul Naga society is continuously declining for last three

decades. The explanation in the decline of female population could be undercount by the

census enumerators and this needs further examination. The other possible explanation

could be the poor health of women, early marriage and maternal health. One good news

in the Tangkhul Nagas society is increase in literacy rate. In economic activities, a

majority of the Tangkhul population is engaged in primary activities especially in

cultivation and forestry.

II

2.4 Profile of Ukhrul District

Ukhrul district occupied grid location between 94°0' and 94°45' East longitudes and

24°15' and 24°45' North Latitudes. The district shares greater frontier with Myanmar

(Burma). The district has a total area of 4,544 sq. Km. The Tangkhul Nagas region was

marked out first as a Sub-Division in 1919 during colonial period and Ukhrul village was

made as the Sub-Divisional Headquarter. Then in November 1969 it was upgraded to a

full-fledged district as Manipur East District. Later it was renamed as Ukhrul District in

1983 after the name of the district Headquarters. The Ukhrul district is divided into five

administrative Sub-Divisions/ Blocks. They are: (1) Ukhrul (Central), (2) Chingai

(North), (3) Kamjong-Chasad (South-East), (4) Phungyar (South-West) and (5) Kasom

Khullen (South). See Map.

44

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Km 1p ._ _9~_10L..I --12 p_l..Jf K m I

-·../"'-· INTERNATIONAL V'V""'''-' STATE

_,'" ... "'.,""" DISTRICT • .•• • • ...... ,. SUB-DIVISION

II DISTRICT HEADQUARTER e BLOCK II

-o SAMPLE VILLAGE

Ecological Background

The present study area is a southern part of the Naga Hills in the Indo-Myanmar frontier.

The hill ranges of the district run in parallel connecting Arakan Yoma. The Ukhrul district

is flanked by Myanmar in the East commonly known as Somra track, Nagaland state in

the North, Chandel district and Thoubal district in the South and Senapati and Imphal

district in the West. The whole district is broken up length-wise into four mountain

ranges. They are Angaching and Samrah track in the extreme east; Kamjong-Grihang

range in the south; Mapithel and Shirai Kashang range in the centre; and Tungau-Samdal

range in the west. The hill ranges are endowed with rich bio-diversity enriched soil and

bracing rain forest climate. Topography varies from one range to another. There are

several narrow valleys, steep and rugged terrain forming many small streams and brooks.

Many hill ranges have thick and dark forests.

As per Regional Cartographic Divisions of the population census (1989), the

district is divided into three Sub-micro regions, which were based on geology, soils,

climate, topography and natural vegetation. The divisions are (1) Northern Hilly region,

(2) Eastern Hilly region, and (3) Southern Hilly region.

From the relief point of view the Northern Hilly Region spreads over the north

western part of Ukhrul district and more than half of Ukhrul Central Sub-Division. The

region has three hill ranges. The maximum height of Shirai Peak (2,568 metres above

mean sea level) is found in Shirai-Kashang range and the maximum height is 1,155

metres above mean sea level near Nungbi village and Kharasam village. The Chamu river

with her tributaries the Ringnga river and Akhang river in the northern part of the region

flows towards east.

Eastern Hilly Region covers as the name suggests, eastern parts of Ukhru1 district

and makes its boundary with state of Nagaland in the north, Myanmar in the east,

45

Chandel district in the south and northern and southern hilly region in the west. The

region has one hill range. The maximum height is 2,834 metres above mean sea level

near Khamasom village and the minimum height is 453 metres near Chalong Khunou

village.

The southern hilly region extends over the south western parts of Ukhrul district

occupying more than half of Ukhrul south sub-division, part of kamjong Chassad sub-

division and whole of Phungyar sub-division. The region has its boundaries with Senapati

district and Imphal district in the west and Chandel district in the south and eastern hilly

region in the east.

Drainage Systems: The hill ranges of the Ukhrul district are the major sources of

drainage in Manipur State. There are many drainages flowing through the deep gorges

and valleys. The nine prominent rivers in the district are- Thoubal, Tuyungbi, Maglang,

Chamu, Nambalok, Challou, !hang, lril, and Laniye (Rangazak).

i

Thou hal: Thoubal river rises from the mountain range of the western side of the

district. Another important tributary is the Nungshangkong which rises from the Shiroi

Kashong range. It flows through the heart of the district and finally joins with Imphal

river. This river flows in an open valley which provides excellent terraced paddy fields of

many Tangkhul Naga villages. "It is the rice bowl of the Tangkhul Nagas" (Muivah

1996:9).

Iril: Iril river is the largest river in Manipur state. It originates in the northern hill

range in the border ofUkhrul-Senapati district.

!hang: I hang river is the principle tributary of Iril.

46

Tuyungbi: It rises from the Finch-comer (near Lambui village) and flows towards

southeast and joins Maglang river. The valley is considerably narrow and provides little

scope for the terraced fields.

Maglang: This river rises from the southern slopes of the Shiroi Kashong and •

flow towards the west. This river flows in a very narrow valley and there is no scope for

the terraced fields.

Chamu: The Chamu originates from the Khayangphung and runs from south to

southeast and joins Chindwin river in Mynamar.

Challou: This river rises from Shiroi Kashong and flows through Challou valley

east of Jessami-Kharasom-Chingjaroi ridge and finally joins Tizu river near Jessami

village.

Laniye: It is also known as Rangazak or Chingjaroi river. It also rises from Shiroi

kashong and flows towards north. The combined stream of Challou-Rangazak and Tizu

takes a hairpin bend along the extreme north eastern trip of the district and enters into

Myanmar territory.

Flora and Fauna: The district can best be introduced by its beautiful Shiroi Lily (Lilium

Mackeliumi grown in Shiroi Peak. This particular lily blooms in May and June of every

year in Shiroi Peak and grows no where else in the world not even in other Naga Hill

ranges. The district has very rich varieties of flora.

As influenced by the varying elevations, climatic conditions and vegetations,

there are varieties of fauna and flora are found in the district. Over 50 per cent of the total

geographical area of the district is covered by forest which ranges from tropical-rain

forest to sub-alpine forest. There are hundreds of varieties of trees, barderian flowering

plants, orchids and innumerable hues and kinds, epiphetic ferns, varied species of plants

47

and shrubs. Some of the known species of plants and trees are; Alder (Alnus nepalensis),

Prunus cirosirdes, Symingtonia, Acacia auriculifornis, Parkia javanica, Paraserrianthes

falcotaria, Michelia oblanga, Cmilina arborea, Pinus kerya, Robinea psedudoacacia,

besides various iris, wild roses, red and white rhododendrons, etc.

This tropical rain forest is also the habitat of many valued species of birds and

animals. Many threatened species like the tragopan blythii, pangolin (ant eater),

salamander, tiger, porcupine, hooting monkey, leopard, bears, elephant, wild buffalo,

wild boars, deer and stags, wild goats are found in this district.

The whole district has monsoon type of climate and rain forest vegetation. The

annual rainfall of the district was 2029 mm in 1991 however; in 1993 it recorded only

895.7 mm. (Litan village one of the sub-meteorological recording units). The average

maximum and minimum temperatures are 24 o C in summer and 3.0° C in winter

respectively. December and January form the coldest part of the season. And the hottest

part of the year is May to July.

Population

The table 2. 7 shows the population scenario of the Ukhrul district. As per 1991

population census, the total population recorded in Ukhrul district is 1,09,27~ persons.

Population distribution by block-wise (Sub-division) is also shown in the table. Among

the blocks, the central Ukhrul block is the most populated one accounting for 61,444

persons. This is followed by Chingai block with 18,536 persons. The lowest

concentration of population is found in Kamjong and Kasom Khullen block and the

population is 12124 and 6,341 persons respectively. Interestingly, the Chingai Block has

the least number of villages in spite of having the second largest concentration of

population among the five blocks. The total number of villages in the district is 222.

48

B 27T IP If TALE. ota opu awn an dD dIG eca a row th R t . Ukh I D. t ' t a em ru IS riC

District/ Area (in Population Percentage Number Total No. of Sq. Km) dec ada! of Households

Sub-Division increase Villages

. 1981 1991 1981-91 1991 1991

Total District 4544 82246 109275 31.74 222 17945

Chingai NA 15377 18536 20.54 31 3309

Ukhrul Central NA 42105 61444 45.93 64 9770

Phungyar NA 9865 10830 9.78 44 1865

Kamjong NA 9635 12124 25.83 49 1897

Kasom Khullen NA 5964 6341 6.32 34 1104

Source: Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner. 1991. Ukhrul District Census Handbook, Series 15, Part XIJ-A&B, Manipur. New Delhi: Office ofthe Registrar General and Census Commissioner. ·

Agriculture: According to table 2.8, an area of 22,000 hectares of the district is under

cultivation. The rice grown under shifting cultivation is much higher than terraced

· cultivation. The main agricultural products in the district are rice, maize, potato, chilies,

cabbage and pulses. The orchard plantation includes banana, sugarcane, fruit like lemon,

plum and orange. All these plants are commonly grown for domestic consumption. In the

district there are two main cereal crops that are rice and maize.

TABLE 2.8(a) Estimated Area and Production of cereal crops in Ukhrul district (Area in '000 beet. and Production in '000 tonne)

Year Rice Maize

Area Production Area Production

1988-89 17.31 32.01 1.02 3.45

1990-91 11.98 20.51 0.83 2.32

1992-93 17.20 33.84 0.54 1.45

1994-95 13.41 26.05 1.25 1.90

2000-2001 13.53 32.60 0.68 1.59

Source: Distnct SociO-Economic Survey (Ukhrul Distnct), 2000-2001. Directorate of Economic and Statistics, Government of Manipur.

49

TABLE 2.8(b) Area Under Rice by Type of Cultivation in Ukhrul District ('000 hectares) Years

1998-1999

1999-2000

Source: same as table 2.8(a)

Forest

Sedentary terraced Cultivation Jhum Cultivation

4.06 13.95

0.72 13.12

The topographic features of Manipur is predominanted by hilly, except central valley

extending to 1,800 Sq. Km. The total state's geographical areas is 22,327 sq. km. The

average altitude of valley is 850 m while the maximum altitude of the hilly region is upto

3,000 metres. The land use pattern in Manipur is shown in Table 2.9(a). Broadly, the

forest of Manipur is classified into following types (FSI, 1995) as wet temperate forest

(8.2 per cent), pine forest (13.6 per cent), wet hill forest (51.4 per cent), semi-evergreen

(3.7 per cent), teak, gurjan forest (3.4 per cent), bamboo brakes (18.6 per cent) and grass

brakes (0.8 per cent). According to Forest Survey of India (1997), the recorded forest

area is 15,154 sq. km. or 1.5 million ha. which constitutes 67.8 per cent ofthe geographic i

area of the state. According to legal classification, the Reserved Forest constitutes 10 per

cent, Protected Forest 27 per cent and Unclassified Forest 63 per cent.

TABLE 2.9(a) Land Use Patterns in Manipur State

Land use Area in '000 ha Percentae;e Total geo_gt"_a_phical area 2,233 Reporting area 2,211 100.0 Forest 602 27.23 Not available for cultivation 1,445 65.36 Permanent pasture and grazing land n 0 Land under misc. tree, crops & groves 24 1.09 Cultivable wasteland n 0 Fallow land other than current fallow 0 0 Current fallow 0 0 Net area sown 140 6.33

n- Included under the head 'Area put to non agrzcultural uses'

Source: Land use statistics at a Glance 1996-97, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India,

2000.

The district-wise forest cover of forest to total geographical area is given in table

50

2.9(b). The total forest covered including both dense forest and open forest in

Tamenglong district is very high and the percentage is 98.1 per cent, this is followed by

Chandel district (86.4 per cent), Ukhrul district (79.7 per cent), Senapati district (70 per

cent) and Churachandpur (62.3 per cent). The lowest forest covered in valley based

districts, that is, Imphal (23.8 per cent), Thoubal (2.3 per cent) and Bishnupur (1 per

cent). The important forest products in Manipur are teak, timber, firewood, cane,

bamboo, agar, dalchini, rubber and thatch grass.

TABLE 2.9(b)_ District-wise forest cover in Manipur State District Area (Sq.

1999 Assessment Total Forest

Km.) covered (in DensejcJrest Opynforest Total percentage)

Churachandpur 4,582 1,273 2,882 2855 62.3 Chandel 3,185 756 1,998 2754 86.4 Thoubal 714 0 17 17 2.3 Bishnupur 481 0 5 5 1.0 Imp hal 1,222 68 223 291 23.8 Tanmenglong 4,197 1,834 2,329 4163 98.1 Senapati 3,486 795 1,648 2443 70.0 Ukhrul 4,460 1,210 2,346 3556 79.7 Source: Forest Survey oflnd1a, 1997.

Table 2.9(c) and (d) shows the forest ownership in the Ukhrul district. Out of district's

total geographical area (4544 sq.km) the land under ownership type is 2624 sq.km. There

are no forest lands under either Forest Department or Civil Authorities. All the forests are

ownership type, that is, the forest is owned by the village community. From the ta~le it is

observed that the forest areas are either owned by the individuals or the village itself. The

forest areas under timber cover 780 sq. Km. and other forests occupied 1,644 sq. Km.

TABLE 2.9(c}_Area under Forest by Ownership in Ukhrul district (Area in sq.km.) Year Under Forest Department Under Civil Authorities Under all Ownership Type

Dedicated Other Total Dedicated Other Total Dedicated to Other Total to Timber forest to Timber forest Timber forest

forest forest forest products _l!!"oducts products

1985-86 0 0 0 0 0 0 780 1644 2624 1990-91 0 0 0 0 0 0 780 1644 2624 1994-95 0 0 0 0 0 0 780 1644 2624 ..

Source: Divisional Forest Officer, Ukhrul, Government ofMampur

51

TABLE 2.9(d) Area under Forest by Legal and Composition in Ukhrul District (Area in sq.km.)

Year Class afForest Reserved Protected Reserved Protected

1985-86 0 0 2624 2624 1990-91 0 0 2624 2624 1994-95 0 0 2624 2624 ..

Source: DIVISIOnal Forest Officer, Ukhrul, Government ofMampur

2.5 The Sample Villages

The selection of Sample Villages is purposive. However, we have taken certain criteria

and care has been taken so that the selected micro-level studies established the overall

Naga ecological setting and economic systems. The purposive criteria are as follows: /

(i) The village practice sedentary terraced cultivation.

(ii) The village practice only shifting cultivation (Jhumming).

(iii) The village near the district Headquarters.

(iv) The village far from the district Headquarters.

(v) Ukhrul, the district Headquarters is selected as oq.e ofthe study areas.

The above criteria were necessary in order to examine the traditional economic

systems in relation to the ecology. One important aspect to be considered is the

topographic situation of the region micro-climatic variations play an important role in

determining the socio-economic conditions as well as land use systems. The table 2.10

shows the characteristics of the sample villages.

T bl 2 10 S I a e . e ectlon o fS 1 v·n ample 1 a2es Criteria Sample Village

Ukhrul Halang Chingjaroi Kamjonf{ Traditional Sedentary Sedentary Sedentary Shifting cultivation agricultural system terraced terraced terraced

cultivation cultivation cultivation Distance from the 0 15 85 90 District Headquarters Location/Settleme Central/compact- Central/compact- Extreme Indo-Myanmar nt patterns elongated elongated north/compact frontier/compact-

irre_gtilar

52

(a) Ukhrul: The Ukhrul, district Headquarters ofUkhrul district is situated 85 Kms from

Imphal, the state capital of Manipur state. Ukhrul lies in Northern Hilly Region and the

average altitude is 2,568 metres above mean sea level. Ukhrul village is situated just

below the lofty Shiroi Peak. This peak is a part of one of the southern Naga Hill ranges.

Ukhrul occupies one whole hillock surrounded by two narrow river valleys. In the west,

the river Nungshang-kong which rises from the Shirai Kashong range flows down

towards Imphal valley and is one of the tributaries of river Thoubal. Another river

Rangazak also rises from the Shiroi Kashong and flows northward in a gentle pace along

the Nagaland-Manipur boundary. After a long sinuous course it empties itself into

Chindwind valley of Myanmar. Both these two rivers are favourable for wet terrace

cultivation and are the main rice bowl ofthe Tangkhul Nagas. As per 1991

population census, the Ukhrul had 1764 households and a total population of 40,440

persons. Ukhrul3 is the biggest village in the district.

(b) Halang (or Huining): Halang village is located very close to Ukhrul. The distant is

only 15 Kilometers from Ukhrul. The Ukhrul and Halang villages are situated on

opposing hill ranges. This village also lies in the Northern Hilly Region. The village is

connected by unmettaled motorable road. The village falls under the Central Ukhrul Sub­

Division. A small stream runs between the Halang village and Ukhrul which serves as the

main wet terrace agricultural system. The total household is 256 with a population of

1,876 persons. Halang is one of the large villages in the district.

(c) Chingjaroi (or Chingjui): The Chingjaroi village is located on the Northern Hills

Region. The original name of the village is called Asiinei. The village is located at the

extreme southern side in the tri-junction of Senapati district, Nagaland State and Indo­

Myanmar frontier. Chingjaroi village comes under the administration of Chingai Sub­

division. The village rest in one of the foot hills of Chingjui Matha (Chingjui mountain).

53

The river Rangazak or Chingjaroi river flowing down from the Shirai Kashong is the

only river that serves the village for agricultural purposes. The distance between the

district headquarters and Chingjaroi is 95 Kms. Chingjaroi village is large village. As per

1991 population census the village had 158 households with a population of956 persons.

(d) Kamjong: Kamgjong village is the sub-Divisional Headquarters and about 80 Kms

from the district Headquarters. The village lies in the Eastern Hilly Region and maximum

altitude is about 2834 metres above mean sea level. It is situated in the easternmost

region of the district. The village is located near the Indo-Myanmar border and the main

agricultural system is shifting cultivation. Kamjong is a large village. See Map.

The following table 2.11 depicts the general profile of the selected villages.

54

The general profiles of the four villages are given in table 2.11.

TABLE 211 P fil fth St d V'll ro 1 eo e u IY 1 ages Parameter considered Ukltrul Halang Cltingjaroi Kamjong Distance from 0 15 85 90 District Headquarters

I (In Kilometres) Location At the Hill At the Hills Ranges At the Foot-hills (close At the slope of the Hills

Ranges to Indo-Myanmar (Indo-frontier) Myanmar frontier)

Numbers of Household (Population) 1764 (1 0440) 257 (1876) 158 (917) 199 (1903) 1991 Population Census

Present status Changed in economic and social Traditional Traditional Traditional outlook as being the District Headquarter at the same time it offer better facilities.

Ethnic composition Tangkhu1 Nagas Tangkhul Nagas Tangkhul Nagas Tangkhul Nagas (100%) (98%) (100%) (100%)

Settlement Nucleat-elongated Nucleat unplanned Nucleat unplanned Nucleat unplanned Unplanned

Agricultural system Agricultural system Sedentary terraced Sedentary terrace d Sedentary terraced Shifting cultivation

Cultivation Cultivation Cultivation (Jhumming)

Land owned Both household and Both household and Both household and Both household and Community Community Community community

Settled agriculture About 75% About 50% About 1 0-15% All jhum (forest) area (kitchen garden and is owned by household as permanently owned plots) well as community

Hunting, Fishing, Food Confined to few Continuing Continuing Continuing Gathering

55

2.6 Field Work

Fieldworks were conducted in two stages. Firstly, it was conducted during the period of

July-August 2001. The second round of field survey was undertaken from November

2001 to February 2002.

2.7 Methodology and Data Collection

The survey methodology includes household questionnaire and qualitative methods. The

qualitative methods are like Focus Group Discussion (FGD), in-depth interview and

participant observation. However, emphasis is given to qualitative study. The qualitative

methods offer flexibility and are much appropriate for traditional societies like the Nagas.

The qualitative methods seek patterns of responses across individuals to "speak for

themselves" (Dryzek and Berejikian, 1993) rather than use pre-specified measures. No

doubt, both the qualitative and quantitative have the strength and weakness. The

qualitative methods generate the transcriptions of the discussions, which reveal much I

more about the attitude as they are expressed in the normal social context. However,

these methods are often criticised on the grounds of that they lack of statistical rigour.

Conversely, questionnaire methods may be based on ill-conceived questions and

categories (Addam, 2000).

The approach also is closely linked with the method of 'participation observation'

(now it is regarded as indispensable for anthropological training and analysis). The

reasons for using qualitative methods here is the study area still prevails with traditional

economic systems and little intervention by the external market economic. National

Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) (1990:198) states, "(t)he qualitative

data gathered in the village studies reflect the social, cultural, and economic environment

of the village." Since qualitative research offers flexibility in using different approaches,

57

a combination of techniques that suited the objectives of the study was selected. The

methods used in the study are follows: (a) Household interview in the form of

questionnaire, (b) Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and (c) in-depth interview with

teachers, village elders and Church administration (see the figure below).

I

Methodology and Data Collection

~,

• ~lr • Household Interview j Focus Groug Discussions In-degth Interview Village Authority Council Teacher Women Orgnisation (Shanao Long) Village elders Christian Youth Society Church administrators

(a) Household Interview

Household Selection: The Naga village is composed of territory, land and population of

various clans (detail will be discussed in Chapter 4). The Naga village is generally small

in size and there is no official household numbering. The households to be interviewed

are selected by purposive method. However, in selection of household we keep in mind

that every clan in the village is represented. The focus is to examine the household

demographic characteristics, main occupation, subsidiary activities and nature of

agricultural practices (see Appendix II).

(b) Focus Group Discussion

Focus Group Discussions formed the pivotal part of the study. The focus group

discussion is a type of group interview used to collect qualitative data. FGD is one unique

method that is very useful in exploratory research aiming to uncover socially held beliefs

and norms. Focus groups are also a way to supplement information on community

58

knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions. Here, the main objective is to understand

their economic system in relation to their socio-cultural ethos. NCAERIHDI (1990) state

that FGD provided an excellent opportunity to study group dynamics and capture data on

perceptions and behaviours regulating human development.

(c) Personal Interaction with Individual

Srinivas (1978) points out that collection of information through the method of

"participant observation" is usually around a well-defined theme of theoretical or

comparative interest. Individual in-depth interview is done at two levels. Firstly, the

village level including elders, teachers and Church authority. In second, the interview is

conducted with the community leaders. The community-based organisations include (a)

Tangkhul Naga Long, (b) Tangkltul Shanao Long, (c) Tangkhul Katamnao Saklong

(see Appendix III).

Today, Tangkhul Naga society is in a state of social and economic transition.

Much is changed due to the spread of education and Christianity. The field work involved

wide range of household survey, personnel interviews, empirical observations, and

mapping of many facets of local life. The data collection approach was designed to

understand the various ecological parameters in relation to the traditional economic

systems. The household questionnaire covered areas like household demography, main

occupation and subsidiary activities, barter system and type of cultivation. For the Focus

Group Discussion (FGD) interview firstly, the author contacted the headman and Youth

President of the village. With their full cooperation the FGDs are conducted at three

levels.

A direct approach was employed in collection of information starting with a broad

exploration of village history focusing on the general areas of village land, forest, land

holding and land use system. The topics for deliberation in the focus group include nature

59

of cultivation, land use in agriculture, changes in village settlement areas and forestry.

We also explored information on marriage, household landed properties, agricultural

system, exchange of labour, and commercial activities.

The table 2.12 and 2.13 illustrates the number of FGDs and in-depth interviews

with the individual men and women. The individual in-depth interview supplemented the

key information. In the field, there is no cultural and language barriers. The first priority

in the field is to ensure the quality of the transcription. The information is record in

notepad and tape-recorder. The information collected in focus groups is checked for

accuracy in individual interview. The individual interview sessions were held in the

respondents' house (for the community leaders the interview is held in the respective

organisations office in Ukhrul). Precaution has been taken to avoid leading questions and

to promote the respondents' self definition of the issue to be discussed.

TABLE212N b . urn ero fF ocus G roup n· ISCUSSIODS c d t d on uc e Focus Group Discussions Chingj_aroi Halanp, Kamjong_

Male Female Male Female Male Female (i)Village Authority/Council* 11 0 9 0 8 0

Age less than 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 30-39 1 0 0 0 2 0

40 and above 10 0 9 0 6 0

(ii) Sllanao Long (Women organisation)** 0 9 0 8 0 7 Age less than 29 0 2 0 1 0 3

30-39 0 3 0 4 0 2 40 and above 0 4 0 3 0 2

(iii) Christian Youth Society (CYS)*** 6 3 5 4 5 2 Age less than 19 0 0 0 0 0 0

20-24 2 1 2 1 2 0 25-29 3 2 2 2 2 2

30 and above I 0 0 1 I 0 Total 17 11 14 12 13 9 ..

* Tradttionally, only marned men represents m the Vtllage Council (detail in Chapter 4). ** The Executive members of Shanao Long consist of President, Secretary, Treasurer,

Accountant and five members. ***The number ofCYS Executive members varies from village to village.

60

TABLE213 N b . urn ero fl d th I t n- ep1 n erv1ew c d t d on uc e Chingjaroi Halang Kamjong Ukhrul Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

Teachers/Elders 5 2 4 3 3 3 Age less than 30 0 0 I 0 0 I

30-39 2 0 0 I 0 0 40-49 I I I 0 2 I

50 and above 2 I 2 2 I I

Church Authority 4 1 4 2 3 2 Age less than 30 0 0 0 0 0 0

30-39 I 0 0 0 0 0 40-49 1 I 1 I 2 0

50 and above 2 0 3 I I 2

Community leaders Tangkhul Naga Long* 3 0

Tangkhul Shanao Long* 0 2 Tangkhul Katamnao Sak/ong* 2 2

Total 9 3 8 5 6 5 5 4

* See Appendix ill.

Studying Own Community: Recently social science writing recognises the relation

between the "observers and the observed" as particularly problematic. It is because of the

implicit inequalities of power between the researcher and the respondents, which in turn,

shapes the translation of cultural experiences made by the researchers. Certainly, in the

field, observer being observed situation is an inevitable circumstance faced by many

researchers. This happens when the respondents develop a conscious feeling over the

inquisitive nature of the interviewer. To overcome such situations, casual and long

interactions are necessary in order to build confidence to the target groups. Moreover,

thorough understanding of their social system and cultural practices is important.

Bogdan and Biklen's (1998) warn that qualitative researchers often focus on

insider's perspective that can make research harder rather than easier. Kitchin and Tate

(2000:29) add that "one may fail to notice pertinent question or issues because of the

inability to step back from a situation and fully assess the circumstances." A caution to

the insider researchers has been mentioned by many scholars. For instance, Evans

(1988:205) mentioned insider researcher may be "over-familiar with the community",

6I

leading to "too much participation at the expense of observation." There are quite a few

scholars who considered insider research as "complete participation" (Keams, 2000), and

a "complete member research" (Ellis and Bochner, 2000).

Being an insider researcher, it is convinced that the interview facilitated a deeper

and more intimate comprehension of the data accumulated. The method that is needed is

to come from the standpoint of those who are living the life that is being studied. At the

same time, the information that has been collected is reliable and cross-checking of the

information collected especially that relating present day is valid. However, the data

pertaining to the past is difficult to know about the validity. By nature Naga are open and

free. But, there are certain reservations when talk about the relationship among the

various clans. The clanism is very much present in every social activities and religious

institutions. Such sensitive issues are avoided in any kind of public gathering except in

personal interaction.

The region being a small and isolated region there is unavoidable lack of

information and official documents. For the secondary data we rely on the population

census data (i) Census Hand Book of Ukhrul district, (ii) Special Tables for Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes of Manipur. At the same time other relevant publications

have been consulted. The Census publications have been supplemented by the report

given by Directorate of Economics and Statistics and Directorate of Tribal Welfare and

Development, Government ofManipur.

Unfortunately, topographic map of the area cannot be consulted as the study

region comes under classified area.

62

Notes

1 Instruction Manual for filling up the Household Schedule issued by the Office of Registrar General and Census Commissioner, New Delhi, 2000.

2 This Lily bears many legends and stories. The Shiroi Lily (2 feet to 3 feet tall consisting of a hard stem around which lanceolate leaves) belongs to the Lilium family and was identified by British Botanist Frank Kingdom Ward in 1946 when he came to Naga hills for botanical collection on behalf of the New York Botanical Garden. The rareness and uniqueness of this lily is that, it has seven colours when examined through microscope. Frank won the prestigious prize of the Royal Horticulture Society Award, London in 1948. In 1984, the Manipur State declared Shiroi lily as the State flower.

3 The Ukhrul, the Headquarter of Ukhrul district is classified as rural. According to 2001 population census, the definition of an urban is as follows: (a) All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc. (b) All paces which satisfied the following criteria: (i) A minimum population of 5,000, (ii) At least 75 per cent of the male working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits, and (iii) A density of population of at! east 400 sq.km.

63