CHAPTER - IIIshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/61025/11/11... · 2018. 7. 7. · CHAPTER -...

CHAPTER - III

CHAPTER - III

EDAPHIC FACTOR

3.1. INTRODUCTION

In .1983 the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS), with the

collaboration of the UNESCO "Man and the Biosphere" programme initiated a

period of collaborative research entitled "the decade of the tropics". The

objective of the programme was that of "increasing our knowledge and

understanding of the biology of the tropics from the point of view of the various

biological sub-disciplines" (Soibrig & GoIley, 1983). One of the sub-disciplines

identified for inclusion within the decade programme was that of soil biology.

The study of soil is important in many respects. Soil is a natural habitat

for plants and animals. It provides water and nutrients to the living organisms.

Knowledge of soil is helpful in agricultural practices, such as cultivation,

irrigation, artificial drainage and use of fertilizers. In India, more than 70% of

the population is dependent on agriculture. The modernization of agriculture in

each way is very much essential (Balaji & Vinukumar, 1998).

Productivity is related to the ability of a soil to yield crops and in the

broader term fertility is a major factor that determines the magnitude of crop

yields. People are dependent on soils and to a certain extent good soils are

dependent upon people and the way they use them.

Characteristics of the soil vary widely from place to place. The chief types

of soil in peninsular India are laterites (high and low levels), red loam, medium

black soil (plateau), hill soils (undifferentiated), red gravelly soils, alluvial soils

including coastal alluvium and mixed red and black soils. Alluvial soils occur

on the banks of rivers like Cauvery and Godavari. Black cotton soils occur in the

Deccan of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamilnadu. Laterite soils occur on

the summit hills of Deccan foothills of Western Ghats in Kerala and Karnataka,

17

Northeast Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Kerala. Peaty soils (pH 3.9) occur

in the low land of Kerala (Antonisamy, 1997).

Soil as "a collection" of natural bodies provide substratum for plants to

grow. Man uses these plants for the supply of fiber, food and fodder for man

and for cattle. Standards of living are often determined by the quality of soil and

the kinds and quality of plants and animals grown on them. So considerable

research has been done on the physico-chemical properties of soil or sediment of

different aquatic bodies (Sinha et al., 1992). But study on the physico-chemical

properties of wetland sediment is very much limited.

This present study focuses the physico-chemical characteristics of wetland

soil and sediments.

3.2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Soils are "Collection of natural three dimensional bodies developed in the

unconsolidated mineral and organic material on the immediate surface of the

earth (a) which serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants and

(b) has properties due to the effects of climate and living matter acting upon

parent material as conditioned by topography over a period of time. Their

origin, classification and characterization are worthy to be studied. The

pedologist is concerned with these aspects as well as with the variety of

purposes, farm and non-farm, for which soils may be used. The edaphologist,

on the other hand, is concerned principally with one major use of soils as a

medium for the production of plants and particularly crop plants" (Nyle, 1984).

The nutrients required by plants are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,

phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, boron, iron, manganese,

copper, zinc, molybdenum and chloride. In addition to this cobalt, vanadium,

sodium, silicon and nickel are also needed by some plants (Samuel et al., 1995).

Availability of these nutrients in soil were reported by Sharma et al., (1990) and

Richter & Babbar (1991).

18

A recent survey of forest soils along the middle stretch of the Caqueta

river in the Amazon low lands of Eastern Columbia has revealed a general trend

of increasing thickness, necromass and fine root content of terrestrial humus

forms along a gradient of decreasing soil nutrient status (Duivenvoorden & Lips, 1993,

1995). Minerals in soil environments in USA has been reported by Dixon & Weed

(1989). Dakgren et al., (1991) has reported the subalpine spodosol in Washington

State.

The effect of fire on the chemical and physical properties of forest soil will

vary significantly depending on the type of soil, the moisture content of the soil,

the intensity and duration of the fire and the timing and intensity of post fire

precipitation (Chandler etal., 1983). Soil properties may change in response to heat

and increased exposure (Ralston & Hatctieli, 1971). The short-term effect on nutrient

availability depend on the thermal effects of the fire on organic compounds, the

rise in soil pH and the microbial processing of organic matter (Binkley et al., 1993).

The presence or absence of duff, humus and other unincorporated organic

materials on the forest floor and the amount consumed are of key importance in

determining how the soil is affected (Brown & Davis, 1973). Sahaijo (1995) showed

that even changes in soil shifting-cultivation does not improve soil fertility.

The mangrove soils are peaty, calcareous and sandy. Salinity and

nutrient level fluctuate due to the complex hydrology of the littoral areas. Since

the mangrove habitat is basically saline, several studies have been conducted to

correlate salinity to the standing crop of vegetation and productivity (Ukpong,

1991, 1992, 1994, 1995b). The importance of nutrient factors, however, has not

received sufficient attention in mangrove ecology.

Naidoo (1980) observed that cation concentrations in mangrove soils has a

correlation with extent of tidal inundation and seepage. Since true mangrove

species (with viviparous fruits / pneumatophores) often exhibit zonation from

the shore inland, the relationship between the mangroves and soil nutrients have

19

been viewed in terms of differences in the values of soil nutrients between

monospecific zones of species (Ukpong, 1995a).

Heath Land soils are characterized as low nutrient soils usually composed

of sand. The dynamics of the typical heath land vegetation species depends as

far as known on a limited supply of nitrogen from external sources. Increased

supply of nitrogen is assumed to change the plant community of heath lands

towards grasslands (Aerts etal., 1990; Madsen & Nomberg, 1995).

In wet areas, however, the actual evapotranspiration may exceed the

potential rate due to a higher interception loss than that of grass. Water in

filtration in sandy soil is often regarded as homogeneous, but during the past

decade preferential flow initiated by soil textural and structural differences and

also soil hydrofobicity have been reported as playing an important role (Dekker &

Ritsema, 1994; Kung, 1990; Ritsema et al., 1998). The physico-chemical properties of

the wetland soils play an important role for the microbes and plants. It has been

reported by Singh and Jha (2000).

In India, the occurrence, distribution pattern, physical and chemical

properties in different forest soil have been reported by Behera et al., (1991).

Agarwal et al., (1976) has reported similar results in South Orissa, Mohanty & Panda

(1996) in Uttar Pradesh, Mohanty et al., (1991) in West Rajasthan, Jha & Dimri (1997) in

North Bihar and Lahiri (1981) in Jodhpur.

The physical conditions of soils are altered by many factors, including

ploughing and tillage operations. There are two very important physical

properties of soil, soil texture and soil structure (Nyle, 1984; Bisdom et al., 1993). The

texture of the soil has been reported by Johanna etal., (1996).

One of the outstanding physiological characteristic of the soil solution is

its reaction, that is, whether it is acid, alkaline or neutral - pH of the soil has

been reported by Birgitte & Knud (1998), IMOH (1998), Under etal., (1998), Devarnavadagi &

Murthy (1999) and Knud etal., (2000).

20

The electrical conductivity of the soil has been reported in northern zone

of Karnataka by Devaranavadagi & Murthy (1999). The electrical conductivity of the

wetland soil has also been reported by Singh & Jha (2000).

Soil organic matter plays a key role in crop sustainability, primarily

through its interactions with soil chemical and physical properties on nutrient

release, cation retention and soil structure (Singh & Singh, 1992). Production and

decomposition processes in the trophogenic zone are closely related to the

amount of organic matter entering the sediments (OhIe, 1956). The rate of

decomposition of organic matter reserves in forest depends on the mode of

addition of plant residues to soil and sequences of microbial activity inside the

soil (Brown & Dickey, 1970). Use of extractable fractions of soil organic matter as

taxonomic criteria has been proposed by Lowe (1980) and Schnitzer etal., (1981).

The organic compound in various soil has been reported by Bisdom et al.,

(1993), Johanna et al., (1996) and Knud et al., (2000). Organic compound in the

sediments has been reported by Singh & Jha (2000).

Of the various essential elements nitrogen has been subjected in several

studies and it still receives much attention. Forest production is often limited by

the non-availability of sufficient amount of nitrogen. Forest species differ in their

preference of various forms of nitrogen, by far nitrate forms the major source.

Nitrate offers certain advantages over other forms of nitrogen especially NH4 in

that (1) it is highly mobile in the soil and its delivery to the root by diffusion or

mass flow is higher than that of NH 4 under equivalent condition, (2) its uptake

avoids the competition that occurs between NH4 uptake and other positively

charged nutrient ions (Waring & Schlesinger, 1985), (3) uptake of nitrate is favoured

by increased acidity (Fried etal., 1965).

Changing seasons had been reported to have significant influence on

nitrogen content of soil (Pokhriyal et al., 1987). Soil nitrogen has been reported by

Knud et al., (2000). Nitrogen in agricultural soils has been reported by Bobbink et al.,

21

(1992), Kristensen & Henriksen (1997), Knud etal., (1999). Singh & Jha (2000) have reported

about nitrogen in wetland soil.

Next to nitrogen the most critical elements in influencing plant growth

and production throughout the world are phosphorus and potassium. Unlike

nitrogen, these elements are not supplied through biochemical fixation, but they

come from other sources to meet plant requirements. The phosphorus and

potassium of various soil has been reported by Johanna etal., (1996), Imoh (1998) and

Singh & Jha (2000).

Trace elements are essential for the growth of plants and microorganisms.

The five micronutrient cations such as iron, manganese, zinc, copper and cobalt

are influenced in a characteristic way by the soil environment. However, certain

soil factors have the same general effects on the availability of all of them. Major

and trace element analysis of 12 reference soils has been studied by Lechler et al.,

(1981).

Calcium, magnesium, sodium, calcium carbonate, cations exchange

capacity and other minerals of the soil samples has been reported by various

scientists in various soils (Johanna et al., 1996; Birgitte & Knud, 1998; Imoh, 1998; Linder

etal., 1998, Devamavadagi & Murthy, 1999; Singh & Jha, 2000).

Apart from these some chemical, physical, mineralogical and ecological

properties of some soils have been studied by Baillie (1989), Shukla & Misra (1993) and

Duivenvoorden & Lips (1995).

The study of biologically mediated soil processes would not only be

scientifically interesting but could also make a significant practical contribution

to agricultural development in the tropical zone. One of the five themes now

established as part of the decade of the tropics is thus the Tropical Soil Biology

and Fertility Programme (TSBF).

22

The major justification for the launching of the decade programme was

the recognition of the critical necessity for improved utilization of the natural

resources of the tropical zone. The continuing high rate of population increase

in many tropical countries and the coincident pressure on land has led both of

food shortage and environmental degradation. One crucial component for the

solution to these problems lies in the development of sustainable agriculture and

forestry systems, which are ecologically viable as well as economically

productive. Based on this the biologically mediated soil samples of the

Koonthakulam bird sanctuary was analysed for various edaphic factors.

3.3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Soil or sediment is an integral part of an aquatic ecosystem which

acquires properties due to complex reactions within itself and also due to the

exchange of chemical between soil and water. The present work was carried out

in order to study the physico-chemical properties of the three tanks,

Koonthakulam, Kannankulam and Kadankulam.

3.3.1. Collection of Soil Samples

Using a corer, soil samples upto a depth of 12 cm were collected from the

tank (sediment), bank, village and cultivated land of Koonthakulam,

Kannankulam and Kadankulam. The collected soil samples were air dried,

ground and sieved through 2 mm mesh and stored in polythene bags for various

analysis. The samples meant for organic carbon estimation was finely ground

and sieved through 0.2 mm mesh and preserved in polythene bags separately.

Except in agricultural field, in all the other regions, the soil samples were tested

every month from November 1998 to December 2000 for various physico-

chemical parameters. Agricultural soil samples were analysed only once.

23

3.3.2. Analysis of Soil Parameters

3.3.2.1. Determination of Soil pH (Piper, 1966)

Principles

pH of the soil is the measure of the hydrogen ion activity and depends

largely on relative amounts of the absorbed hydrogen and metallic ions. Thus, it

is a good measure of acidity and alkalinity of a soil-water suspension, and

provides a good identification of the soil chemical nature.

Procedure

The pH of the soil extract was determined using systronic pH (digital) in

a soil water suspension of 1:5 ratio.

3.3.2.2. Determination of Electrical Conductivity (Piper, 1966)

The electrical conductivity measurement gives the total amount of soluble

salts present in the soil. The electrical conductivity (EC) is expressed as dsm-1.

Procedure

The EC of the soil extract was determined using systronic EC meter

(digital) in a soil water suspension of 1:5 ratio.

3.3.2.3. Determination of Lime Status (Piper, 1966)

Principle

Calcium carbonate in the soil sample is neutralized with excess of

standard acid and the excess acid is determined by back titration with standard

alkali using phenolphthalein as indicator.

24

Reagent

0.1 N Sulphuric acid, 0.1 N potassium hydroxide and phenolphthalein

indicator.

Procedure

5 g of soil sample was taken with 100 ml of 0.1 N sulphuric acid in a

beaker. The content was stirred well and allowed to stand for one hour to

complete the reaction. 25 ml of the clear supernatant from the above content

was taken along with 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator and titrated against

0.1 N potassium hydroxide till the appearance of faint permanent pink colour.

Calculation

Volume of 0.1 N KOH consumed for 25 ml of the aliquot = A ml

Volume of 0.1 NKOH consumed for 25 ml of 0.1 N H2SO4 (blank) = B ml

InlOOmi (0.005)(B-A)x100/25

3.3.2.4. Determination of Carbonate (Piper, 1966)

Principle

This estimation is based on simple acidimetric titration in the presence of

phenolphthalein indicator and titrated with standard H 2SO4, phenolphthalein

gives pink colour with CO3-2. The reaction is as follows:

Na2CO3 + H2SO4 -* NaHSO4 + NaHCO3

Reagents

Phenolphthalein indicator and 0.01 N H2SO4.

25

Procedure

A. Extraction

Weigh 40g of soil in a conical flask. Add 200 ml of distilled water, shake

for one hour and filter the suspension.

B. Volumetric Analysis

Take 5 ml of the extract and add 2 to 3 drops of phenolphthalein

indicator. Titrate the aliquot with 0.1iN H2SO4 until the pink colour just

disappears.

Calculations

Volume of aliquot taken for analysis = V ml

Volume of H2SO4 used for titration = C ml

mg of CO3-2 per 100 g of soil = [(0.01 x C) x (200 / V) x (100 / 40) x 30)

3.3.2.5. Determination of Total Organic Matter and Total Carbon (Walkley &Black, 1934)

Principle

The organic matter present in the soil is digested with excess of potassium

dichromate and sulphuric acid and the residual unutilized dichromate is then

titrated with ferrous ammonium sulphate. The elementary carbon present as

graphite, charcoal etc., is not attacked in this method and only organic carbon is

determined. Only about 60 - 90% of the total organic matter is recovered.

Reagents

1 N potassium dichromate solution, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid,

ferrous ammonium sulphate and diphenylamine indicator.

26

Procedure

2 g of soil sample was taken in a conical flask. A mixture of 10 ml of I N

K2Cr2O7 solution and 20 ml of Conc. H2SO4 was added and mixed by gentle

swirling. The mixture was kept for 30 minutes to complete the reaction. After

the reaction was over the content was diluted with 200 ml of distilled water

along with 10 ml of diphenylamine indicator. This sample was titrated against

0.4 N ferrous ammonium sulphate till the colour changed to brilliant green at the

end. A blank was run with same quantity of the chemicals without soil.

Calculation

(a) % of carbon = 3.951/ g (1 - T / S)

(b) % of organic matter = %C x 1.724

Where, g = Weight of the sample

S = ml ferrous solution with blank titration

T = ml ferrous solution with sample titration

Note: The factor 1.724 is based on the assumption that carbon is only 58% of the

organic matter. In the estimation of carbon a factor for average recovery

of about 75% organic matter by this method had been taken into

consideration in the above formula.

3.3.2.6. Determination of Available Nitrogen in Soil (Alkaline PotassiumPermanganate Method, Subbiah & Asija, 1956)

Principle

A given weight of soil is treated with excess of alkaline Kmn04 and

distilled. KMnO4 is a mild oxidizing agent in an alkaline medium. The organic

matter, present in the soil, is oxidized by the nascent oxygen, liberated by

Kmn04 in the presence of NaOH, and, thus, the ammonia released is distilled,

and adsorbed in a known volume of a standard acid, the excess of which is

27

treated with a standard alkali, using mixed indicator (methyl red and

bromocresol green). Nitrogen estimated by this method is considered to be

hydrolysable N or potentially available N.

Reagents

0.32% Kn04 solution, 2.5% NaOH solution, 2% boric acid, "methyl red

and bromocresol green indicator.

Procedure

Place 20 gram of soil in a distillation flask, add 20 ml of water, 100 ml of

0.32% K11n04 solution and 100 ml of 2.5% NaOH. Pipette out 20 ml of 2% boric

acid in a conical flask. Add 2 - 3 drops of mixed indicator, and dip the end of

the delivery tube into it. Distill the ammonia gas from the distillation flask and

collect in boric acid solution. Continue distillation till the evolution of ammonia

ceases completely (test by bringing a moist red litmus paper near the outlet of

the condenser, which will turn blue as long as ammonia is being evolved).

Titrate against N/50 H2SO4 and note the volume of H2SO4 used. The end point

is reached when the colour changes from pink to blue.

Calculation

% of available N = T.V. x 0.00028 x 100

Available N in the soil (kg/acre) = T.V. x 14

T.V. = Titre value

3.3.2.7. Determination of Available Phosphorus in Soil [Olsen's Method(Olsen etal., 1954)]

Principle

In this method, the soil is shaken with 0.5 M NaHCO3, at a nearly

constant pH of 8.5, in 1:25 ratio, for half an hour, in the presence of Dargo - G60

28

(which absorbs the dispersed organic matter in the sample and thus helps giving

a clear extract) and the extract is obtained by filtering the suspension.

Phosphorus in the extract is treated with ammonium molybdate (a complexing

agent), which results in the formation of a hetropoly complex, known as

"phosphomolybdate" (yellow coloured). Then the phosphomolybdate is

reduced by the use of SnC12 (a reducing agent). As a result of this reduction,

some of M06 is converted to M03 and / or M05 , and the complex assumes

the characteristic blue colour. The intensity of the blue colour obtained is

proportional to the quantity of F, entering into the reaction, yielding the complex

known as "molybdenum blue". This colouration permits P to be quantitatively

determined with a satisfactory precision.

NaHCO3 controls the tonic activity of Ca (from calcium phosphate)

through precipitation of Ca as CaCO3 during the extraction of calcareous soils, in

particular. This extractant also extracts some P from the source of Al and Fe -

phosphates in acid and neutral soils by way of suppressing Al and Fe activities

and enhancing the phosphate activity.

Reagents

0.5 M NaHCO3, Dargo-G60, ammonium molybdate and stannous

chloride.

Procedure

A. Extraction

Weigh 5 gm of soil in a 100 ml conical flask. Add a pinch of Dargo-G60

and 50 ml of 0.5 M NaHCO2 solution. Shake the flask for half an hour on an

electric shaker and filter the suspension through Whatman No. 42 filter paper.

Prepare a blank with all the reagents except the soil.

29

B. Analytical Determination

Pipette out 5 ml of the extract in a 25 ml volumetric flask, and add 5 ml of

ammonium molybdate solution. Shake the contents of flask gently so as to avoid

the direct contact of SnCl2 with the conc. ammonium molybdate. Finally add

1 ml of SnC12 working solution, make up ta25 ml with distilled water and mix

the contents of the flask. Measure the intensity of the blue colour developed, on

a colorimeter, 10 minutes after the addition of SnC1 2 solution. This measurement

should be carried out at a wavelength of 660 nm, using a red filter. Locate the

readings of the sample as well as that of the blank, measured on the colorimeter

in the standard curve, and calculate the result.

Calculations

Colorimeter reading obtained = X

Phosphorus content with reference to standard curve = ig / ml

Amount of available X x pg 25 ml 50 mlphosphorus in kg/ acre - ------x

1 5m1 5g

50 ml = 0.5 M NaHCO3, 25 ml = Volume of extract

3.3.2.8. Determination of Available Potassium in Soil (Jackson, 1973)

Principle

The method was based on the principle of equilibrium of soils with an

exchanging cation made of the solution of neutral normal NH 40AC, in a given

soil: solution ratio. During the equilibrium, ammonium ions exchange with the

exchangeable K ions of the soil. The K content in the equilibrium solution is

estimated with a flame photometer. Since NH 4 holds highly charged layers

together just as K, the release of the fixed K in an exchangeable form is retarded

during NH40AC extraction.

30

Reagent

Neutral N NH40AC solution.

Procedure

Weigh 5 gm of soil in a 150 ml conical flask. Add 25 ml of neutral N

NH40AC solution to it. Shake the contents of the conical flask on an electric

shaker for 5 minutes and filter. Feed the filtrate into the atomizer of the flame

photometer, 100 ppm of which has been set with 40 ppm K solution and note the

reading. Locate this reading on the standard curve, which will give the

K concentration in the extract. From this concentration measurement, the

amount of K in the sample is calculated.

Calculations

Flame photometer reading = ppm

25Amount of available potassium in the soil (Kg/acre) = ppm x --

5

Where 25 = volume of extract added

5 = weight of the soil sample

3.3.2.9. Determination of Exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium (Piper, 1966)

Cations present in the exchange complex of the soils can be removed by

leaching the soil with ammonium acetate solution. Different exchangeable

cations are then estimated separately in this ammonium acetate leachate.

For determination of the exchangeable cations, the soil is first washed

with ethyl alcohol to remove the soluble fraction. Moreover, for total cations

(exchangeable + soluble) there is no necessity of prior alcohol washing. For

soluble fraction only, a 1:5 soil solution is used to estimate the cations.

31

Reagents

Ethyl alcohol 40%, absolute alcohol, ammonium acetate solution, aqua-

regia, 0.01 M EDTA solution, sodium hydroxide 0.1 N, murexide indicator,

buffer solution and eriochrome black T indicator.

Procedure

Take 50 g of air-dried soil in a 500 ml beaker and add about 100 ml of 40%

alcohol. Shake well and keep for about 15 minutes. Filter the suspension

through Whatman No. 50 filter paper using Buchner funnel and vacuum pump.

Wash the soil 4 - 5 times with 50 ml portions of 40% alcohol and perform the

final washing with absolute alcohol to dry the soil. Remove the filter paper and

scrap the soil in a 250 ml beaker and wash finally the Buchner funnel and filter

paper with 100 ml ammonium acetate solution to remove any adhered portion of

the soil. Stir the soil suspension and keep for overnight. Now filter the

supernatant and later the soil with additional ammonium acetate through

Whatman No. 42 filter paper, using Buchner funnel. Leach the soil 4 - 5 times

more with portions of ammonium acetate and make up the final volume of the

filtrate to 500 ml with distilled water in a volumetric flask.

Ammonium acetate and dispersed organic matter when present in

appreciable amounts, interfere with the titration with EDTA; they must almost

entirely be removed prior to titration with EDTA. Evaporate a portion of the

ammonium acetate extract to dryness and dissolve the residue in a very small

portion of aqua-regia. Evaporate again to dryness and dissolve the residue this

time in distilled water to make up the original volume of the extract evaporated.

Calcium

Take 50 ml of sample in a conical flask. Add 2 ml of NaOH solution and

approximately 100 mg of murexide in the sample; a pink colour will develop.

Titrate the contents with EDTA solution until the pink colour changes to dark

32

purple. As there is no sharp end point, for better judgement compare the end

point colour with that of the purple colour obtained after distilled water blank

titration end point.

Magnesium

Take 50 ml of sample in a conical flask add 1 ml of buffer, 1 ml of sodium

hydroxide and approximately 100 mg of Eriochrome Black T indicator, the

solution will turn wine red. Titrate the contents with EDTA solution, the colour

changes to blue at the end point.

Calculation

Ax400.8xV% Calcium =

Vxl0000xS

A x 400.8 x VCalcium meq I 100 -— --------------

Vx20.O4xlOxS

(B - A) x 400.8 x V% Magnesium = ------. -------------

Vxl0000xSxl.645

(B - A) x 400.8 x VMagnesium meq / 100 g =

V 10 x S 1.645 x 12.16

A Volume of EDTA (ml) used for Ca determination

B = Volume of EDTA (ml) used for Ca:Mg determination

V Total volume of soil extract prepared (500 ml)

S = Weight of soil taken (50 g)

v = Volume of soil extract titrated (50 ml)

33

3.3.2.10. Determination of Exchangeable Sodium and Potassium (Stanford &English, 1949)

Exchangeable sodium and potassium can also be determined in

ammonium acetate leachate. Find out the Na and K by flame photometry

method.

Calculation

mg Na/l of soil extract x V% Na = -----------------------

10000 x S

mg Na/l of soil extract x V

Na meq / 100 g = --10 x S x 23

mg Na/i of soil extract x V% K = --------------------

10000 x S

mg Na/i of soil extract x VK meq / 100

10 x S x 39

Where

V = Total volume of soil extract prepared

S = Weight of soil taken

3.3.2.11. Determination of Micronutrients Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn (DTPA ExtractMethod by Lindsay & Norvell, 1978)

Preparation of Extractant Solution

Weigh 1.865 grams of DTPA (Diethylene triamine penta acetic acid) plus

14.9 grams of Triethanol amine plus 1.47 grams of calcium chloride in

1000 ml. Volumetric flask made up t1000 ml with double distilled water. Then

adjust the pH of the solution to 7.3 by using distilled HC1.

UJI

Preparation of Distilled HO

Take 1 litre of double distilled water and 650 ml of con. HO (AR) in

round-bottomed flask. Then boil it, distill completely and collect the distillate,

this should be sievedwith nylon sieve 2 mm.

Procedure

Weigh 10 gm of soil sample in 125 ml. polythene conical flask. Then add

20 ml of DTPA extractant. Shake it for two hours. Then filter through Whatman

No. 40 filter paper. Then take reading in Absorption Atomic Spectrometer

(AAS).

3.3.2.12. Determination of Cation Exchange Capacity of Soil (Schollennberger &Dreibelbis, 1930)

Principle

In this method, the CEC of a soil is measured by leaching it with neutral

N NH40AC solution which saturates the soil surface with NH4 ions, this is

followed by the removal of excess salts with alcohol. The absorbed NH 4 is

finally determined by distilling the soil with magnesia (MgO) and the gas

evolved during the distillation, is absorbed in a known volume of a standard

acid taken in excess the unreacted acid molecules, being back-titrated with a

standard alkali.

Reagents

NH40AC (pH7), opropyl alcohol or ethanol, 0.1 H2SO4, 0.1 N NaOH,

MgO powder, NH4HC1 crystals, methyl red indicator.

Procedure

Weigh 10 g of soil sample in a 500 ml conical flask. Add 50 ml of

NH40AC solution to the soil sample mix thoroughly and let it stand for over

night. Transfer the contents of the beaker on to a moist filter paper, seated inside

a Buchner funnel under suction. Continue to leach the soil with 150 ml of

NH40AC solution, pouring 25 ml at a time. Keep the filtrate for the

determination of total and individual exchangeable bases. To the soil on the

filter paper, add a pinch of NH4C1 crystal and leach with alcohol. Continue

washing of the residue till the filtrate runs free of chloride (test the filtrate with

AgNO3 solution - white turbidity indicates incomplete washing). Transfer the

residue and the filter paper to a 500 ml distillation flask. Add 0.5 g of MgO and

200 - 300 ml of . distilled water. Connect the flask to the distillation apparatus.

Place a 250 ml beaker, containing 25 ml of 0.1 N H2SO4 under the condenser of

the distillation apparatus to receive NH3. Start distillation by heating till no NH3

is evolved through the end of the condenser which is confirrnedby the turning

of red litmus paper to blue. Titrate with 0.1 N NaOH solution.

Calculations

Volume of 0.1 N NaOH required for sample titration = S ml

Volume of 0.1 N NaOH required for blank titration = B ml

CEC of the soil (meq / lOOs)(B - S) xO.1 x 10

10

3.3.2.13. Determination of Soil Texture (International Pipette Method:Piper, 1966)

Principle

This method is based on Stokes' Law. According to this law the rate of

fall of a particle in liquid is directly proportional to the square of its radius Va y2.

2 gr2 dp - dV=-- x

g n

36

where V = Sedimentation velocity in cm / sec.

g = Acceleration due to gravity cm / sec2

r = Radius of the particle on sphere (cm)

dp = Density of the particle (g/cc)

d = Density of the liquid (g/cc)

n = Viscosity of the liquid

The soil is first dispersed by destroying the binding agents with hydrogen

peroxide and hydrochloric acid followed by treatment with a dispersing agent.

Clay and silt are separated by sedimentation and coarse and fine sand by

sieving.

Procedure

Take 20 g of air-dried soil sample to a 500 ml beaker. Add 60 nil of

6% hydrogen peroxide. Stir it well and keep it on a water bath for 30 minutes till

frothing ceases. Treatment with hydrogen peroxide is to destroy the organic

matter which acts as a binding material. Then add 200 ml of N/5 HC1, stir it

well and keep it over night. Hydrochloric acid is added to destroy CaCO3 which

acts as a binding agent.

Filter the contents through Whatman No. 50 filter paper and wash it with

water till the filtrate runs free of chloride. Add about 400 ml water. Then add

8 ml of normal sodium hydroxide and stir it well for 10 minutes with a

mechanical stirrer. Transfer the contents to a 1000 ml spoutless measuring

cylinder and make up to 1000 ml mark with water. Cover the cylinder tightly

with a rubber stopper.

Clay and Silt

Remove the rubber stopper and place the cylinder under Robinson

pipette just touches the surface of the suspension. At the end of the stipulated

settling time for clay and silt, lower the pipette to 10 cm depth and draw 20 ml

37

suspension and deliver it to a weighed clean porcelain dish. Evaporate this first

by keeping it on a water bath and dry it in an air oven at 105°C. Cool it in a

desiccator and determine the weight as clay and silt.

Clay Alone

Shake the contents of the cylinder well and leave undisturbed till the

stipulated settling time for clay alone corresponding to the suspension

temperature. Withdraw 20 ml of the suspension. Evaporate it in a hot air oven

at 105°C. Cool it in a desiccator and determine the weight as clay.

Coarse Sand and Fine Sand

Wash the sediment with water and transfer the contents to a tall beaker.

Add water to a height of more than 10 cm. Stir well and allow it to stand for

4 minutes. Repeat this process till the water is poured off and no longer turbid.

Transfer the residue to a porcelain basin, dry it in an oven and weigh as coarse

sand plus fine sand. Sieve the coarse sand and fine sand in a 70 mesh sieve.

Calculation

Clay + Silt

Weight of empty porcelain dish = ag

Weight of silt + clay + dish + NaOH = bg

Weight of clay + silt alone = (b - (a + 0.0064))g

Clay Alone

Weight of empty porcelain dish = p g

Weight of dish + clay + NaOH = q g

Weight of clay alone = (q - (p + 0.0064))g

38

Coarse Sand + Fine Sand

Weight of porcelain basin = xg

Weight of dish + coarse sand and fine sand = yg

Weight of coarse sand and fine sand = (y - x)g

Coarse Sand alone

Weight of porcelain basin = cg

Weight of basin + coarse sand = dg

Weight of coarse sand alone = (d-c)g

3.4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The characteristics of the soil vary widely from place to place. The

physico chemical characteristics of four different places (Tank, Bank, Village and

Agricultural field) of three different stations (Koonthakulam, Kannankulam and

Kadankulam) are shown in the table. The three stations Koonthakulam,

Kannankulam and Kadankulam are referred as Station I, Station II and Station

III respectively.

3.4.1. Soil Texture

Soil texture is concerned with the size of mineral particles. Specifically, it

refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes in a given soil.

3.4.1.1. Coarse Sand

Coarse sand proportion varies in the different soil samples and also in

different stations. Coarse sand in the tank soil of Station I ranges from 18.13% to

28.5%, of Station II ranges from 14.3% to 27.8% and of Station III ranges from

25.10% to 45.5% (Tables 5, 11 and 17). In the bank soil of Station I, II and III

coarse sand ranges from 11.21% to 24.6%, 17.6% to 28.9% and 23.5% to 44.5%

respectively (Tables 7, 13 and 19). Coarse sand in the village soil of Station I

39

ranges from 19.63% to 30.16%, of Station II ranges from 17.2% to 29.5% and it

ranges from 28.1% to 42.5% in Station III (Tables 9, 15 and 21). Coarse sand in

the agricultural field of Stations I, II and III is 46.7%, 29.5% and 45.8%

respectively (Table 22). Kadankulam has maximum coarse sand in the tank,

bank and village soil when compared to the other two stations.

3.4.1.2. Fine Sand

Fine sand composition also varies in different stations and in different soil

samples. Fine sand in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 33.7% to

55.3%, 25% to 44.6% and 8.2% to 32.3% respectively (Tables 5, 11 and 17). Fine

sand in the bank soil of Station I, II and III ranges from 45.3% to 55.6%, 26.5% to

51.5% and 12.3% to 32.4% respectively (Tables 7, 13 and 19). Fine sand in the

village soil ranges from 33.5% to 59.2% in Station I, 32.7% to 49.2% in Station II

and 11.2% to 34.8% in Station III (Tables 9, 15 and 21). Agricultural field soil of

Station I, II and III has 18.5%, 7.7% and 11.8% fine sand respectively (Table 22).

Station I shows maximum amount of fine sand compared to Stations II and III.

Coarse and fine sands combine to form total sand (Table 25). The total

sand percentage is more in Station I and it ranges from 60% to 78.2% in tank,

from 59.91% to 71.7% in bank, 60% to 82.3% in village and it is 65.2% in

agricultural field (Table 22).

3.4.1.3. Clay

Clay percentage in the tank soil of Station I ranges from 12.5% to 18.58%,

Station II from 29.9% to 39.8% and 31.8% to 39.6% in Station III (Tables 5, 11 and

17). In bank soil of Stations I, II and III it ranges from 10.1% to 20.77%, 11% to

19.5% and 31.3% to 39.1% respectively (Tables 7, 13 and 19). The percentage of

clay in village soil of Stations I, II and III it ranges from 9.0% to 30.7%, 12.5% to

19.3% and 12.7% to 20.6% respectively (Tables 9,15 and 21). In agricultural field

Station II had maximum clay of 49.2%, minimum of 29.2% in Station I (Table 22).

40

Maximum percentage of clay is observed in the tank, bank and village soil of the

Station III.

3.4.1.4. Silt

Silt in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 7.8% to 24.9%, 7.3%

to 9.7% and 5.1% to 9.3% respectively (Tables 5, 11 and 17). In bank soil of

Stations I, II and III it ranges from 16.15% to 21.2%, 12.5% to 36.5% and 6% to

8.7% respectively (Tables 7, 13 and 19). In village soil silt percentage ranges

from 8.6% to 25.6% in Station I, 16.3% to 36% in Station II and 16.9% to 29.6%

Station III (Tables 9, 15 and 21). In agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III it

is 5.6%, 13.6% and 8.2% respectively (Table 22). Tank soil of Stations I, bank,

village and agricultural field soil of Station II are more silty in nature compared

to the Station III.

Based on the study of the colour, nature and the particle size of the

sample, the soil in the study area is classified as the brown sandy loam in the

tank, bank and village samples of Station I, bank and village samples of Station

II and village sample of Station III, as brown sandy clay in the tank sample of

Stations II, III and bank sample of Station III. In agricultural field of Stations I

and III it is sandy clay loam and Station flit is clay in nature. Clay soils increase

the soil mixture and soil aeration. This corroborates with the findings of Johnston

(1992) and Joost (1995).

3.4.2. pH

The pH of the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 5.4 to 7.5, 5.8 to

8.5 and 6 to 8.4 respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16) (Fig. 2, 5 and 8). The pH of

bank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 5.8 to 6.6, 5.9 to 8.4 and 6.7 to 8.3

respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and 9). The pH of village soil of

Stations I, II and III ranges from 5.7 to 6.3, 6.7 to 8.4 and 6.7 to 8.5 respectively

(Table 8, 14 and 20) (Fig. 4, 7 and 10). Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and

III has the pH value 5.2, 6.6 and 8.4 respectively (Table 22).

41

The relationship of the pH of the tank soil is not significant with

temperature and rainfall in Station I whereas in Stations H and III it shows

significant relationship with the rainfall. "y' value of Station II is 0.000884, 0.0954

and the P value is 0.96375 and 0.7493. 'y' value of Station III is - 0.177, 0.119 and

the P value is 0.532, 0.699 (Table 27). pH value of tank soil shows significant

relationship with water pH of Station I, their 'y' value is 0.176, 0.0704 and their

P value is 0.532, 0.8172 (Table 31).

The physiological characteristics of the soil solution is its reaction, that is,

whether it is acid, alkaline or neutral. It is measured by one of a number of

methods and expressed in terms of pH unit (BUT, 1953). pH in the soil samples

of three Stations I, II and III is acidic to medium alkaline in nature. So, there is

no alkaline or acidity problem. They are in optimum range for plant growth.

Acidity of soil may be due to the presence of birds guano. It was supported by

Sinha (1995) in the sediment of Kawar Lake of North Bihar, India. Here the

acidity is due to the presence of humus which possess large amount of

aminoacids and other organic acids.

Decrease in pH may be due to the leaching and run off of cations such as

calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium (Toky & Ramakrishnan, 1981). In

humid areas where soil pH is closely related to base cations such as calcium, the

loss of cations from the surface soil will reduce soil pH (Hakim etal., 1986).

3.4.3. Electrical Conductivity

Electrical conductivity in tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from

0.04 dsm 1 to 0.09 dsm-1, 0.05 dsm 1 to 0.21 dsm 1 and 0.09 dsm 1 to 0.32 dsm1

respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16) (Fig. 2, 5 and 8). Bank soil of Stations I, II and

III ranges from 0.02 dsm-1 to 0.06 dsm 1 , 0.02 dsm 1 to 0.2 dsnr1 and 0.08 dsm 1 to

0.28 dsm 1 respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and 9). Village soil of

Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.049 dsm 1 to 0.08 dsm 1, 0.07 dsm 1 to 0.31 dsm

1 and 0.07 dsm-1 to 0.31 dsm 1 respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20) (Fig. 4, 7 and 10).

42

Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has 0.07 dsm- 1 , 0.08 dsm 1 and 0.24

dsm-1 respectively (Table 22). Salinity of Kadankulam is higher than that of

other stations. Village soil of Kannankulam is equally saline as that of

Kadankulam.

Electrical conductivity in tank soil of these three Stations I, II and III

shows non-significant relationship with temperature and rainfall (Table 27).

Tank soil of Stations II and III shows significant relationship with EC of tank

water. The 'y' value is -0.0496 and 0.106, their p value is 0.8690 and 0.733

respectively in Stations III and II (Table 31).

EC of these stations are optimum and the same result was also observed

by Sinha (1995) in Kawar Lake sediment. Mitsch & Gosselink (1986) state that mineral

soils have higher hydraulic conductivity due to dominance of major cations in

the sediment. Summer increases its conductivity and it may be due to

decomposition processes which releases nutrient and ions from the dead and

decaying biota. According to Rickard (1965) the soils with electrical conductivity

values greater than 4 ds/m are considered saline. Generally conductivity values

that fall in the range of 4-8 dsm/m are not inhibitory to plant growth in most

semi arid to and region unless other factors compound the salinity problem

(Munshower, 1993). EC of these three stations recorded below 4 dsm/m. So there

is no salinity hazards and they are optimum for plant growth.

3.4.4. Calcium Carbonate

Calcium carbonate in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from

5.09% to 7.1%, 5.8% to 8.11% and 5.15% to 8.1% respectively (Tables 4, 10 and

16). Calcium Carbonate is absent in the bank soil of all the three stations. In

village soil of Stations I, II and III it ranges from 1% to 2.7%, 1.01% to 2.9% and

1.26% to 3.25% respectively (Tables 8,14 and 20).

Depending upon the percentage of calcium carbonate the areas are

classified as profuse effervescence, nil effervescence and medium effervescence.

43

Tank soil of Stations I, II and III and the agricultural field soil of the third station

are profuse effervescence and they are calcareous. Bank soil of Stations I, II, III

and agricultural field soil of Stations I and II are nil effervescence and they are

non calcareous. Village soil of all three stations are medium effervescence and

they are medium calcareous.

Calcareous nature of CaCO3 was reported by Maliwal (1999) in saline and

sodic soils in the coastal area of Gujarat. Here the CaCO3 ranges from 5% to

10%. Calcareous, noncalcareous and medium calcareous nature of CaCO3 was

reported by Sharma and Vinod (1991) in the herbaceous vegetation region of Kailana

catchments in the Indian Thar Desert.

3.4.5. Organic Carbon

Organic carbon in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.12%

to 1.7%; 0.01% to 0.07% and 0.01% to 0.42% respectively (Table 4, 10 and 16) (Fig.

2, 5 and 8). Bank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.12% to 0.4%, 0.02% to

0.08% and 0.02% to 0.28% respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and 9).

Organic carbon of village soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.16% to 0.32%,

0.03% to 0.12% and 0.01% to 0.18% respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20) (Fig. 4, 7

and 10). Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has 0.78%, 0.47% and

0.45% respectively (Table 22).

Organic carbon of Station I is maximum when compared to Stations II

and III. Status of organic carbon is low to medium. This is in accordance with

the data compiled by Jenny & Ray Chaudhuri (1960). Lower organic matter content

was found during the rainy season. Tropical soils were found unfavourable for

a number of species of terrestrial water moulds, probably because of the high

temperature (Dayal & Tandon 1962; Srinivasan 1967). It can be argued that higher

temperature inhibited zoospore formation and induced the formation of

resistant gemmae and zoospores, which required a certain period of dormancy.

The soil fungi play an important role in the formation of soil organic matter. The

44

surface soil contains more organic matter compared to the layers lying below

because the surface soil receives the leaf fall. Natural vegetation, when it

accumulates on the soil surface, contributes to the organic matter of the soil. The

level of organic matter in soil determines the multiplication of microorganisms

and makes a system more dynamic (Prescott et al., 1993).

In the available literatures values of organic carbon in soils are normally

between 1 meq/g to 3 meq/g. In the present investigation, it ranges from 0.01%

to 1.7% of organic carbon, hence the level of organic matter is found to be low to

medium. According to Lowe (1975), higher levels of biological activity should be

reflected in lower amounts of organic matter in the soils.

3.4.6. Carbon I Nitrogen Ratio

Carbon/ Nitrogen ratio in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from

3:2 to 50:4, 1:3.5 to 7:8 and 1:1 to 13:10 respectively (Table 24). In bank soil of

Stations I, II and III C/N ratio ranges from 2.9:1 to 20:5, 1:2 to 8:7 and 1:2 to 17:11

respectively (Table 24). C/N ratio of village soil of Stations I, II and III ranges

from 1:6 to 16:6.5, 1:11 to 11:10 and 1:12 to 17:14 respectively (Table 24).

Agricultural field of Stations I, II and III has 88:1, 13:1 and 46:1 C/N ratio

respectively (Table 22).

The C/N ratio in soil organic matter is important for two major reasons

(a) keen competition among micro organisms for available nitrogen results when

residues having a high C/N ratio are added to soils and (b) because this ratio is

relatively constant in soils, the maintenance of carbon and hence soil organic

matter depends largely on the soil nitrogen level. C/N ratio in the tank soil of

the Station I is maximum 50:4. Large quantities of organic residues with a wide

C/N ratio are incorporated in this soil under conditions supporting vigorous

digestion (Nyle, 1984). High C/N ratio was also supported by Joost et al., (1994).

According to Berthelin & Toutatin (1982) a C/N ratio of the heath mor-layer between

20 and 30 can be regarded as an active mor-layer which is relatively easy to

45

activate. Since C/N ratio in the bank soil of Kadankulam ranged between 20

and 30, this region is more active.

3.4.7. Available Nutrients

Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are available nutrients.

3.4.7.1. Nitrogen

Nitrogen in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 45 kg/ acre to

68 kg/acre, 36 kg/acre to 49 kg/acre and 41 kg/acre to 67 kg/acre respectively

(Tables 4, 10 and 16) (Fig. 2, 5 and 8). Nitrogen content of bank soil of Station I

ranges from 40 kg/acre to 60 kg/acre, Station II from 35 kg/acre to 45 kg/acre

and Station III from 46 kg/ acre to 72 kg/ acre (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and

9). Amount of nitrogen in the village soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 49

kg/acre to 65 kg/acre, 49 kg/acre to 62 kg/acre and 60 kg/acre to 76 kg/acre

respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20) (Fig. 4, 7 and 10). Agricultural field soil of

Stations I, II and III has 80 kg/acre, 73 kg/acre and 66 kg/acre respectively

(Table 22).

Village soil of Kadankulam reports maximum amount of nitrogen.

Whereas agricultural field of Koonthakulam reports slightly higher value than

the village soil of Kadankulam. Soils of Station I and II have minimum nitrogen

content. According to Chandrasekaran et al., (1999) 450 kg/ha and above are the

maximum amount of nitrogen. Since the nitrogen amount of various soil

samples in all the three stations are less than 100 kg/acre, the fertility status of

the soil is very low.

Nitrogen is an integral component of many compounds essential for plant

growth processes. The availability of nitrogen is due to the addition of plant

residues on the soil decomposition (Bhola & Misra 1998). Continuous exchange of

nitrogen within the ecosystem is called the nitrogen cycle. In the total cycle

about 4-7 tons of nitrogen per hectare is added to the soil each year (De, 1996).

46

The nitrogen content of an ecosystem will be relatively stable, or it may be

changing in quantity, depending on the net gain and loss of nitrogen by various

input and output processes (Collier of al., 1973). In these stations, during winter

there are tons of birds guano is added to this soil. Available nitrogen in

birds guano is 220.5 kg/ha (Table 26). Net gain of nitrogen in this station may

be due to the presence of birds guano.

Reduction in soil nitrogen involves three mechanism; denitrification,

chemical reactions, and volatilizations of NH3 from the soil surface after

burning. Loss of nitrogen and the release of other nutrients are associated with a

decrease in the organic matter content of the forest floor (Chandler of al., 1983).

Nitrogen in these stations shows significant correlation with rainfall data,

the)' values is 0.110, 0.152, p value is 0.716 and 0.594 (Table 27).

3.4.7.2. Phosphorus

Phosphorus in the tank soil of Station I ranges from 5 kg/acre to

8.3 kg/acre, Station II from 6.5 kg/acre to 8.56 kg/acre and Station III from

6.5 kg/acre to 9.2 kg/acre (Table 4, 10 and 16) (Fig. 2, 5 and 8). Bank soil of

Stations I, II and III the phosphorus content ranges from 3.7 kg/acre to

6.8 kg/acre, 5.6 kg/acre to 7.30 kg/acre and 6.2 kg/acre to 9.2 kg/acre

respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and 9). Phosphorus of village soil of

Stations I, II and III ranges from 7 kg/acre to 8.5 kg/acre, 3.96 kg/acre to

10.13 kg/acre and 5.2 kg/acre to 10.1 kg/acre respectively (Table 8, 14 and 20)

(Fig. 4, 7 and 10). The phosphorus in agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III

has 2.0 kg/ acre, 3.5 kg/ acre and 1.0 kg/ acre respectively (Table 22). Phosphorus

in birds guano is very high 255.75 kg/ha (Table 26). According to Chandrasekaran

of al., (1999) phosphorus content of 22 kg/ ha and above are very high. Station III

has high amount of phosphorus than Station I and II. Very low value of

phosphorus is noticed in the Kannankulam. Since the maximum value of

phosphorus ranges from 7 to 10 kg/acre the phosphorus value is medium in all

47

the three stations. Phosphorus in the tank soil is non significant with

temperature and rainfall except in the Station I (2000) y value is -0.146, p value is

0.635 and Station III (1998 and 1999) y value is 0.0178, p value is 0.9396

(Table 27).

Phosphorus is virtually used in every important process in plants. It is an

essential constituent of protoplasm and it does not move readily through the soil

and is not leached by rain and watering. Phosphorus is absorbed by the plants

as H2PO4, HPO4 or PO4 depending upon the soil pH. Most of the total soil

phosphorus is tied up chemically in compounds of limited solubility.

Phosphorus is never readily available. Available soil phosphorus may be only

1% or less of the total amount present. But its availability is generally highest in

the range centering around pH 6.5 (Nyle, 1984). Here pH of the soil ranges from

5.2 to 8.6, therefore the available phosphorus is also slightly higher. Phosphorus

level is reduced during winter and monsoon due to rapid utilization of these

vital nutrients by the macrophytes and phytoplankton. Similar result in this

system was also found by Sinha (1995) and Singh & Jha (2000).

3.4.7.3. Potassium

Potassium in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 87 kg/acre

to 188 kg/acre, 97 kg/acre to 145 kg/acre and 121 kg/acre to 233 kg/acre

respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16) (Fig. 2, 5 and 8). Bank soil of Stations I, II and

III ranges from 115 kg/acre to 135 kg/acre, 108 kg/acre to 150 kg/acre and

148 kg/ acre to 226 kg/ acre respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and 9).

Potassium content of village soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 210 kg/ acre

to 261 kg/acre, 216 kg/acre to 261 kg/acre and 216 kg/acre to 263 kg/acre

respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20) (Fig. 4, 7 and 10). In agricultural field soil

potassium of Station I is 171 kg/acre, Station II is 261 kg/acre and Station III is

294 kg/ acre (Table 22).

48

200

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Fig. 2- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKoonthakulam Tank soil from November 1998 — December 2000

120

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49

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52

160

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Fig. 6- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKannankulam Bank soil from November 1998 - December 2000

160

140

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Fig. 7- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKannankulam Village soil from November 1998 — December 2000

300

II

A a_èA A—.A A £ A j—&-----A £. S S •S$ $ . p . p p p •

Co co 0) 0) a) C) C) 0) a, a) a) 0) 0)0) 0) a) a) C) M C) C) 0) a) a) 0) 0) 0)> 0 C M IL >s C 0. > C.)o a) CU CU 0. CO .-,

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54

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Fig. 8- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKadankulam Tank soil from November 1998 - December 2000

CO C) a 0) M 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) C)0) 0) 0) 0) 0) M C) 0) 0) 0)C) 0) 0) 0)> C) . '- !- > C 0) 0 • > C)o a, CO a, 0. cc a, 0 Wz 0 -) U.. -) < 0) 0 Z 0

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Fig. 9- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKadankulam Bank soil from November 1998 - December 2000

'1CO CO C 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)0) 0) 0) 0) 0) T 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)> 0 C . - C C CD Q- t5 > C)o a Ca CD Q ca (, 0 QZ 0 –) u –) < (1) 0 z a

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56

t $ $ $ $ a- . -a- 0 0 $ •

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Fig. 10- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKadankulam Village soil from November 1998 - December 2000

300

9

8

250 7

6

ccci 200 5 0

c 150

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100 2 Ui

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—h--N —*— P —*— K -- pH ---B(dsm-1) —.—OC%

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EEE_N ---P--*--K —s—pH ---(cism-1) Wlb

57

Potassium is one of the major nutrients needed for plants. It plays a

major role in plants. It is an activator of dozens of enzymes responsible for

energy metabolism, starch synthesis, nitrate reduction, sugar degradation and

also plays a major role in protection against disease by thickening the outer cell

walls of plant tissues (Nyle, 1984).

According to Chandrasekaran et al., (1999) potassium values are classified

into three status low(118 kg/ha), medium (118 kg/ha to 280 kg/ha) and high

(280 kg/ha and above). In the present study high value of potassium is

observed in these stations this may be due to the presence of birds guano, which

contains 428.125 kg/ha of available potassium (Table 26).

Potassium in these stations are suitable for the growth of macrophytes

and phytoplankton. The higher level of potassium during summer is due to

decomposition, while lower level during post monsoon and winter season, may

be due to the utilization of these nutrients by the growing plant communities.

Similar result in this system was also found by Singh & Jha (2000) in sediment of

Kawar Lake North Bihar.

1-ligh amount of potassium is also reported in sediment of river Yamuna

and Hindan (Dakshini et al., 1983) and Sursagar Lake (Agarwal et al., 1978).

3.4.8. Exchangeable Cations

3.4.8.1. Calcium

The calcium content of tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from

4 meq/lOOg to 18.8 meq/lOOg, 5.1 meq/lOOg to 11.2 meq/lOOg and

7.5 meq/lOOg to 15.4 meq/lOOg respectively (Table 4, 10 and 16). In the bank

soil of Stations I, II and III amount of calcium ranges from 6.8 meq/lOOg to

10.1 meq/lOOg, 5.7 meq/lOOg to 11.5 meq/lOOg and 6.2 meq/lOOg to

11.65 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18). Village soil of Station I has

3.8 meq/lOOg to 7.5 meq/lOOg, Station II has 5.3 meq/lOOg to 9.6 meq/lOOg and

58

Station III has 8.3 meq/lOOg to 13.65 meq/lOOg (Tables 8,14 and 20). Calcium in

agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III is 2.75 meq/lOOg, 10.5 meq/100g

and 15.1 meq/100g respectively (Table 22).

Tank soil of all the three stations has significant amount of calcium in the

year 2000. Their y value is -0.102, -0.124 and -0.117. P value is 0.733, 0.683 and

0.699 (Table 31). This significant result may be due to the exchange of nutrients

between the soil and the water. Calcium in this station shows optimum level

and they are suitable for plant growth (Chandrasekaran etal., 1999).

Tank soil of Station I and bank, village and agricultural field soil of

Station III has high calcium. This may be due to the birds guano because birds

guano contains 260.520 mg/i of calcium. Similar results were found in the

catchment area and the river Burhi Gandak, and the increase in calcium is due to

the addition of calcium carbonate from the neighbouring industry (Singh & Jha,

2000).

3.4.8.2. Magnesium

Magnesium in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from

2.1 meq/lOOg to 17.5 meq/lOOg, 4.1 meq/lOOg to 9.2 meq/lOOg and.

3.75 meq/lOOg to 5.65 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16). The amount

of magnesium in the bank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 9.8 meq/lOOg

to 15.7 meq/lOOg, 7.49 meq/lOOg to 15.1 meq/lOOg and 3.36 meq/lOOg to

8.51 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 6,12 and 18). Village soil of Stations I, II and

III has 2.2 meq/lOOg to 3.2 meq/lOOg, 2.9 meq/lOOg to 10.5 meq/lOOg and

2.63 meq/lOOg to 6.25 meq/lOOg magnesium respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20).

Agricultural field soil of Station I has 2 meq/lOOg, Station II has 3.5 meq/lOOg

and Station III has 4 meq/lOOg (Table 22).

Magnesium of tank soil shows significant correlation with the water

samples of all the three stations (Table 31). This significant correlation may be

due to the exchange of cations. Mg value of this present study is slightly higher

59

and this may be due to the presence of birds guano. Mg in the birds guano is

97.386 mg/i (Table 26).

Higher amount of calcium and magnesium are observed in the river

Yamuna and Hindon (Dakshini et al., 1983) and Sursagar lake (Agarwal et al., 1978).

Same result was found in Mangrove swamps in South Eastern Nigeria (IMOH,

1998).

In the present study, Mg in the tank soil of Station I, Bank and village soil

of Station II, agricultural field of soil of Station III are found higher than that of

other stations. Magnesium in these stations is in optimum level and good for

plant growth.

3.4.8.3. Calcium/Magnesium Ratio

Calcium/ Magnesium ratio in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges

from 1.06:1.18 to 3.5:2.6, 1.01:1.06 to 3.73:3.07 and 1.88:1.18 to 5.13:1.25

respectively (Table 23). Bank soil of Stations I, II and III Ca/Mg ratio ranges

from 1.01:2.53 to 5.05:7.05, 1:1 to 3.83:2.55 and 1:1 to 3.88:1.26 respectively (Table

23). In the village soil of Station I Ca/Mg ratio ranges from 1.5:1 to 3.75:1.35, in

Station II 1:1 to 3.2:3.07 and in Station III 2.1:1.05 to 6.83:1.33 (Table 21).

Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has 1.4:1, 3:01, 3.8:1 Ca/Mg ratio

respectively (Table 22).

Calcium and magnesium are absorbed by plants as ions (Ca2 and Mg2)..

Both are similar in their behaviour in soils, and are held as exchangeable ions by

electrostatic attraction around negatively charged soil colloids. Soils with

predominantly 2:1 colloids will have higher exchange capacities (Samuel et al.,

1995). In the present study Ca/Mg ratio was 2:1 in the Kadankulam station and

here the exchange capacity is higher. Normal range of Ca and Mg in humid soil

ranges from 0.7% to 1.5%. Here the Ca and Mg is higher and this may be due to

the addition of birds guano and litter fall. Same effect was reported by Whitmore

60

(1989), in white sand soils of tropics and were also found in L horizons over

podzolised soils in the middle caqueta area (Duivenvoorden & Lips 1995).

3.4.8.4. Sodium

Sodium in the tank soil of Station I ranges from 0.891 meq to 1.76 meq,

Station II from 0.85 meq to 2.35 meq and Station III from 1.26 meq to 1.75 meq

per 100 g of soil samples (Tables 4, 10 and 16). In the bank soil of Stations I, II

and III sodium ranges from 0.4347 meq/lOOg to 0.81 meq/100g, 0.96 meq/lOOg

to 2.11 meq/lOOg and 1.26 meq/lOOg to 1.97 meq/100g respectively (Tables 6,12

and 18). Village soil of Stations I, II and III has 0.4347 meq/lOOg to


1.81 meq/lOOg sodium respectively (Tables 8,14 and 20). Agricultural field soil

of Station II has 0.22 meq/lOOg and Station III has 2.46 méq/lOOg (Table 22).

Whereas sodium is completely absent in the agricultural field soil of Station I.

Sodium is one of the micronutrients essential for the plant growth.

Sodium level in most plants and plant parts are typically low and related to soil

Na levels, which in turn are highly affected by Na levels in rainfall and the

frequency of rainfall. In these stations sodium level is higher during summer

than the other seasons. This was supported by Nyle (1984) that the level of

sodium in the soil increases due to low rainfall and the impeded drainage, which

leads to accumulation of sodium and turn the soil into saline or sodic. Similar

results were also reported by Lal & Cumming (1979). Saharjo & Makhrawie (1998)

reported that the sodium increased immediately after burning. High rainfall

reduced the Na content and it was reported by Silver (1994). Village and bank soil

have high amount of sodium than the tank soil.

3.4.8.5. Potassium

Potassium content in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from

0.24 meq/lOOg to 0.49 meq/lOOg, 0.46 meq/lOOg to 0.91 meq/lOOg and

0.28 meq/lOOg to 0.97 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16). Bank soil of

61

Stations I, II and III has 0.06 meq/lOOg to 0.64 meq/100g, 0.36 meq/lOOg to

0.98 meq/lOOg and 0.27 meq/lOOg to 0.98 meq/lOOg potassium respectively

(Tables 6, 12 and 18). In the village soil of Stations I, II and III the potassium

ranges from 1.01 meq/100g to 2.70 meq/lOOg, 0.56 meq/lOOg to 1.32 meq/100g

and 0.37 meq/lOOg to 1.57 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20).

Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has 0.51 meq/lOOg, 0.64 meq/lOOg

and 0.64 meq/lOOg potassium respectively (Table 22).

90% of available potassium is in the exchangeable form (Attoe & Truog 1945).

In these stations whenever the soil content of potassium increased and sodium

decreased. Seasonality of these effects are also reported by Scott etal., (1992). The

rainfall reduced the level of K and it was reported by Johanna & Joost (1996).

3.4.9. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cation Exchange Capacity in the tank soil of Station I, II and III ranges

from 7.33 meq/100 g to 36.71 meq/lOOg, 12 meq/lOOg to 22.19 meq/lOOg and

14.05 meq/lOOg to 21.51 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16). In the

bank soil of Stations I, II and III CEC ranges from 17.72 meq/lOOg to


18.15 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18). In the CEC of village soil of

Stations I, II and III ranges from 7.97 meq/lOOg to 13.37 meq/lOOg,

9.98 meq/lOOg to 21.34 meq/lOOg and 13.9 meq/lOOg to 20.62 meq/lOOg

respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20). In the agricultural field soil of Station I CEC is

10.2 meq/lOOg, in Station II CEC is 16.7 meq/lOOg and in Station III CEC is

22.5 meq/lOOg (Table 22).

Cation exchange is generally considered to be more important, since the

anion exchange capacity of most agricultural soil is much smaller than the cation

exchange capacity. Ion exchange reactions in soils are very important to plant

nutrient availability, soil development and ecosystem activities (Samuel et al.,

1995). The leaching and runoff of cations such as Ca, Mg, K and Na has reduced

62

the pH. Same effect was reported by Toky & Ramakrishna (1981). The decrease of

these cations reduced total bases and CEC. Reduction of organic content means

it reduces CEC value. Similar result was also reported by Trabaud (1990). CEC is

affected by many factors such as soil reaction, texture, type of clay, minerals,

organic matter and liming. The CEC decrease was probably a consequence of

the relatively high clay content. Same result was also found by Giovannini et al.,

(1988).

Cation Exchange Capacity in the present study is more and this may be

due to the presence of high level of cations. Similar results were also found in

Kwa Ibo river swamp and Imo river swamps (IMOH, 1998). Cations are more

during dry month. Soil with predominately 2:1 colloids will have higher

exchange capacities, 2:1 ratio of Ca:Mg is observed in Station III. Cations of Ca,

Mg, Na and K are in optimum levels and they are good for plant growth.

3.4.10. Micronutrients

Micronutrients are required in very small quantities. Also, they are

harmful when the available forms are present in the soil in larger amount than

the level that could be tolerated by plants or by animals.

3.4.10.1. Copper

Copper in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.7 ppm to

0.92 ppm, 0.25 ppm to 0.97 ppm and 0.56 ppm to 1.96 ppm respectively (Tables

4, 10 and 16). Bank soil of Stations I, II and III has 0.6 ppm to 0.75 ppm,

0.28 ppm to 0.63 and 0.27 ppm to 1.46 ppm respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18).

Village soil of Station I has 0.91 ppm to 1.32 ppm, Station II has 0.32 ppm to

0.96 ppm and Station III has 0.65 ppm to 1.98 ppm copper (Tables 8, 14 and 20).

In the agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has 2.89 ppm, 2.06 ppm and

1.13 ppm copper respectively (Table 22).

63

3.4.10.2. Zinc

In the tank soil of Station I zinc ranges from 0.36 ppm to 1.48 ppm, Station

II from 0.01 ppm to 0.65 ppm and Station III from 0.62 ppm to 1.26 ppm (Tables

4, 10 and 16). Zinc in the bank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.23 ppm

to 0.42 ppm, 0.05 ppm to 0.63 and 0.49 ppm to 0.95 ppm respectively (Tables 6,

12 and 18). Village soil of Station I has 0.78 ppm to 1.92 ppm, Station II has

0.09 ppm to 1.02 ppm and Station III has 0.36 ppm to 1.26 ppm respectively

(Tables 8, 14 and 20). The agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has

1.03 ppm, 0.49 ppm and 0.63 ppm zinc respectively (Table 22).

Zinc values are maximum in the tank and bank soil of Kadankulam,

village and agricultural field soil of Koonthakulam when compared to the other

areas.

3.4.10.3. Iron

Iron content in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 3.2 ppm to

4.92 ppm, 2.07 ppm to 2.81 ppm and 3.17 ppm to 6.71 ppm respectively. The

bank soil of Stations I, II and III has 2.63 ppm to 4.2 ppm, 2.06 ppm to 2.91 and

2.65 ppm to 4.85 ppm respectively. In the village soil of Stations I, II and III iron

ranges from 1.2 ppm to 2.97 ppm, 1.3 ppm to 2.06 ppm and 3.27 ppm to

6.71 ppm respectively. In the agricultural field soil of Station I, iron is 32.2 ppm,

in Station 1112.8 ppm and in Station 111 3.59 ppm. Kadankulam station has high

iron content in all the soil samples.

3.4.10.4. Manganese

Amount of manganese in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from

2.65 ppm to 5.3 ppm, 4.27 ppm to 7.35 ppm and 7.25 ppm to 9.08 ppm

respectively. Bank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 2.59 ppm to 3.9 ppm,

4.15 ppm to 5.81 and 4.58 ppm to 8.66 ppm respectively. Village soil of Stations

I, 11 and III has 0.97 ppm to 2.3 ppm, 2.35 ppm to 4.86 ppm and 7.07 ppm to

9.11 ppm manganese respectively. Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III

has 7.29 ppm, 12.6 ppm and 4.63 ppm manganese respectively.

Manganese in the Station III shows maximum value when compared to

the Stations I and II.

Uptake of heavy metals are very low in loam and sandy loam soil. So

large amount of heavy metals are accumulated in the soil this was reported by

Under et al., (1998) in terrestrial and wetland habitat. Nature of the soil in the

present study is also sandy loam in condition. Hence large amount of heavy

metals are accumulated in this soil.

Accumulation of micronutrients depend upon the pH of the water and

the soil samples. Here the pH of the water and the soil are 5 to 8. Aston et al.,

(1974) reported that high amount of metal in sediment may be due to high

alkalinity of the water. It has also been reported by Dean etal., (1972) that most of

the metals in water precipitates at higher pH values (i.e., above 5.0 Cu above 7.0

Zn). Alkaline pH enables precipitation and much higher concentration of heavy

metals Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni and Co in the sediment as per above view and it has

also been supported by Ajmal & Khan (1987).

Copper ions are strongly adsorbed by the surface of both silicate clays

and oxide clays. Organic matter is another very effective medium adsorbing

copper ions and may well contribute to most exchangeable copper ions (David

Jeffrey, 1987). Here, the Station III soils are clay in nature and hence copper

content is also more here when compared to the Stations I and II.

Calcareous soils may have deficiencies of iron, manganese, zinc and

copper and in a few cases, a toxicity of molybdenum (Nyle, 1984). Status of

micronutrient in these stations: Copper is low to medium. Iron and manganese

are high, Zinc is very low, deficient and they are under critical level. Copper,

Iron and Manganese are above critical level and they are sufficient for plant

growth.

65

From the present findings, the following points are enlightened.

1. pH of the soil is acidic to medium alkaline in nature. So there is

no alkalinity or acidity problem.

2. There is no salinity hazards with the EC value.

3. Fertility status is also good.

4. Micro nutrient is also above critical level, hence, the soil has an

optimum range for plant growth.

66

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I67

Table - 5

Mechanical Fractions of Koonthakulam Tank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000

Mechanical Fraction (%)_____________Month Texture

Clay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand

Nov-98 15.10 24.90 26.30 33.70 Brown sandy loam

Dec-98 16.00 21.00 26.30 36.70 Brown sandy loam

Jan-99 15.30 17.70 26.40 40.60 Brown sandy loam

Feb-99 14.10 17.90 26.10 41.90 Brown sandy loam

Mar-99 15.70 24.00 26.50 33.80 Brown sandy loam

Apr-99 15.70 19.40 26.50 38.40 Brown sandy loam

May-99 15.10 17.80 27.00 40.10 Brown sandy loam

Jun-99 12.50 19.00 28.50 40.00 Brown sandy loam

Jul-99 14.20 18.10 26.20 41.50 Brown sandy loam

Aug-99 16.00 19.80 26.20 38.00 Brown sandy loam

Sep-99 15.65 18.95 24.20 41.20 Brown sandy loam

Oct-99 13.16 20.62 23.20 43.02 Brown sandy loam















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Table - 7

Mechanical Fractions of Koonthakulam Bank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000

Mechanical Fraction (%)____________Month Texture










5JuI-99 10.30 19.40 22.30 48.00 Brown sandy loam


















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Table - 9

Mechanical Fractions of Koonthakulam Village Soil of fromNovember 1998 to December 2000

Mechanical Fraction (%)____________Month Texture




























72

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I73

Table - 11

Mechanical Fractions of Kannankulam Tank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000

Mechanical Fraction (%)Month Texture


Nov-98 35.80 8.70 16.30 39.20 Brown sandy clay

Dec-98 37.60 9.60 15.20 37.60 Brown sandy clay

Jan-99 29.90 9.30 16.20 44.60 Brown sandy clay

Feb-99 35.00 8.40 14.30 42.30 Brown sandy clay

Mar-99 36.50 8.50 27.50 27.50 Brown sandy clay

Apr-99 37.80 9.50 22.60 30.10 Brown sandy clay

May-99 38.60 9.50 21.70 30.20 Brown sandy clay

Jun-99 39.80 7.50 22.60 30.10 Brown sandy clay

Jul-99 35.50 7.60 26.20 30.70 Brown sandy-clay

Aug-99 38.50 8.70 27.80 25.00 Brown sandy clay

Sep-99 31.50 9.50 24.20. 34.80 Brown sandy clay

Oct-99 35.60 8.50 22.70 33.20 Brown sandy clay









Jul-00 33.60 8.20 21.70 36.50 Brown sandy clay


Sep-00 32.70 7.60 27.50 32.20 Brown sandy clay




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Table -13

Mechanical Fractions of Kannankulam Bank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000





























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Table - 15

Mechanical Fractions of Kannankulam Village Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000





























78

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Table -17

Mechanical Fractions of Kadankulam Tank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000

IMechanical Fraction (%)

Month TextureClay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand


























Dec-00 39.60 6.60 39.60 14.20 t Brown sandy clay

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C C

C C

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C C

C C

C C

C C

C C

C C

O C

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

OC

C.00000C

CC

CC

CC

Ud

dd

dd

dd

dd

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CC

0C

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0C

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C C

C 0

C C

C C

C C

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C C

C C

0 0

C C

C(b

00 a' it) C

t) Ct) i co a

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it) 4 '.0 cc a

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N

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N N

a' c

c c

cC

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CC

OC

CC

CC

CC

CC

CC

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a'a

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0 Z

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CD'4U0)

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cc'40)0)0zE00

cc

E-('C4-40UI)'40)V(U(U

U-CUUI81

Table-19

Mechanical Fractions of Kadankulam Bank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000





























82

ci

r10) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - N

- -

- -

- -

- -

N. '.0

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N N

r

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NC

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83

Table - 21

Mechanical Fractions of Kadankulam Village Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000















Nov-99 13.70 26.80 j 33.20 26.30 Brown sandy loam














84

Table - 22

Physico-chemical Characteristics of Agricultural Field Soil ofStations I, II and III

Kadankulam

8.4

0.24

0.45

0.9

PE

22.5

Physico-chemical characters -

pH

EC dsm-1

OC%

OM%

CaCO3 status -

CEC C.mol(+)kg-1 -

Available Nutrients (Kg/acre)

Nitrogen -

Phosphorus -

Potassium -

Nitrogen -

Micronutrients (ppm)

Zinc

Copper

Iron

ManganeseExchangeable cations C.mol(+)kg-1

Ca

Mg

Na

BSP

ESP

Ca:Mg Ratio

C:N Ratio

Sand Fraction

Coarse sand %

rFinesand%

TTota'1 sand %Clay %

Silt %

Textural class

Koonthakulam

5.2

0.07

0.78

1.56

NE

10.2

80

2

171

0.16%

1.03

2.89

32.2

7.29

2.75

2

0.51

51.6

1.4:1

88:1

46.7

18.5

65.2

29.2

5.6

Sandy clay loam

Kannankulam

6.6

0.08

0.47

0.94

NE

16.7

73

3.5

261

0.15%

0.49

2.06

12.8

12.6

10.5

3.5

0.22

0.64

89

1.3

3:01

13:1

29.5

7.7

37.2

49.2

13.6

Clay

66

I

294

0.13%

0.63

1.13

3.59

4.63

15.1

4

2.46

0.64

99.6

10.9

3.8:1

46:1

45.8

11.8

57.6

34.2

8.2

Sandy clay loam

85

Table - 23

Calcium: Magnesium of Three Stations fromNovember 1998 to December 2000

Month & Station I Station II Station IIIYear Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village

Nov 1998 2:1.05 4.45:5.85 2.15:1.1 2:1.37 3.23:4.6 2.65:1.45 2.51.73 2.27:2.84 2.77:2.08

Dec 1998 2.11.1 3.03:4.03 2.21.25 2.1:1.93 3.3:4.57 1.35:1.23 1.91.16 2.3:2.51 3.27:1.75

Jan 1999 2.11.1 3:4 2.3:1.3 1.03:1.02 2.02:2.92 1.12:1.08 2.13:1.2 2.07:2.75 2.87:1.08

Feb 1999 2:1.15 3.06:4.37 2.11.55 1.7:2.1 3.67:5.03 1.14:1.24 3.17:1.57 1.11.09 4:1

Mar 1999. 2.11.25 3.23:4.37 2.45:1.4 1.11:1.2 2.16:2.7 1.88:2.15 3.42:1.33 2.86:2.09 4.05:1.08

Apr 1999 2.06:1.06 5.05:7.05 2.55:1.45 1.03:1.07 3.07:4.2 2.2:2.3 5.13:1.25 3.08:2.12 4.21.17

May 1999 2.11.06 3.3:4.87 2.61.35 1.04:1.23 2.15:2.88 2.18:2.63 4.42:1.27 3.12:1.54 6.83:1.33

Jun 1999 2.06:1.1 3.28:4.83 2.71.4 1.05:1.3 3.23:4.4 2.53:3.4 4.72:1.29 3.22:1.21 6.31.32

Jul 1999 2.37:1.37 3.27:5.03 2.65:1.45 1.43:2.15 2.04:2.7 2.15:2.45 3.29:1.07 3.12:1.24 5.79:1.34

Aug 1999 2.31.3 1.03:2.1 1.73:1 3.73:3.07 1.12:2.12 2.05:2.15 2.82:1.06 3.28:1.45 6.31:1.36

Sep 1999 3.5:2.6 1.09:2.09 2.03:1.06 3.1:2.63 1.25:2.1 3.23.07 3.13:1.08 3.88:1.26 6.26:1.43

Oct 1999 1.11.15 1.03:1.97 2.41.03 1.08:1.03 2.07:3.73 2.18:2.3 2.31.13 2.63:1.2 4:1.09

Nov 1999 1.06:1.18 2:3.48 2.91.35 1.03:1.09 2.17:3.6 1:1 1.88:1.18 2.3144 4.25:1.44

Dec 1999 2.06:3.27 2.13:3.5 2.1:0.97 3.07:2.5 2.63.83 2.03:2.4 1.95:1.16 1.03:1.07 2.11.05

Jan 2000 2:3.73 2.08:3.93 3.55:1.4 2.18:1.8 2.07:3.57 2.37:2.9 2.13:1.05 2.17:2.45 2.92:1.17

Feb 2000 1.1:2.52 2.18:3.3 3.25:1.25 1.09 61.04 2.43.2 2.17:2.63 2.57:1.22 1.14:1.05 3.73:1.07

Mar 2000 2.15:7.15 3:4.03 2.81.3 1.01:1.06 2.17:3.25 2.4:2.88 2.84:1.29 1:1 2.15:1.07

Apr 2000 1.13:2.63 1.01:2.53 2.05:1.35 3.23:2.6 2.17:2.83 1.03:1.11 3.19:1.29 1.14:1.04 3.38:1.13

May 2000 3.13:2.7 1:1.57 1.91.1 2.15:1.9 1.43:4.05 1:1 3.42:1.29 2.24:1.06 5.63:1.36

Jun 2000 2.03:2.44 2.43.27 3.65:1.25 2.4:2.3 1.06:1.07 2.03:1.88 4.85:1.29 3.21:1.21 5.79:1.33

Jul 2000 2.07:2.5 2.27:3.27 3.75:1.35 1.24:1.04 1:1 2.41.81 4.42:1.27 3.11:1.16 5.29:1.41

Aug 2000 1.97:1.23 1:2.16 1.81.07 1.88:2.04 3.83:2.55 2.41.89 4.11:1.32 2.91.19 3.77:1.02

Sep 2000 1.7:1.07 2.05:3.58 1.5:1 1.09:1.02 2.07:2.88 2.18:1.97 4.57:1.29 3.08:1.19 3.45:1.06

Oct 2000 2:1.25 3.24:4.17 2.35:1.4 2.8:2.05 2.23:2.5 2.73:2.32 4.77:1.35 3.45:1.24 3.28:1.09

Nov 2000 2.11.1 3:4 2.3:1.3 1.04:1.06 1.3:2.04 1:1 3.44:1.04 2.92:1.19 3.42:1.12

Dec 2000 2.17:3.23 2.05:3.5 3.05:1.48 3.1:2.43 1.38:2.14 2.05:2.38 2.84:1.05 2.59:1.12 3.12:1.2

86

Table -24

Organic Carbon: Nitrogen of Three Stations fromNovember 1998 to December 2000

Month & Station I Station II Station III

Year Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village

Nov 1998 4:3 13:8 10:5 7:8 8:7 6:5 1:1 13:11 17:14

Dec 1998 13:19 15.2:8 10.5:5.5 2:3 7.57 11:10 3:4 4:5 7:12

Jan 1999 7:5 5.03:3 10:5.5 5:9 3:4 9:11 1:13 7:9 1:2

Feb 1999 6:5 13:8 15:5.5 5:9 3:4 1:11 3.21 2:7 1:14

Mar 1999 3:2 6.67:3 10:6 2:5 7:8 9:11 2.51 3:7 7:15

Apr 1999 3:2 10.5:5 10.5:6.5 3.31 7.2:8 8:11 2.51 2.15:1 1:12

May 1999 16:11 10:5 10:6.5 1.13 7.1:8 7:10 7:9 4:5 1:12

Jun 1999 4:3 9.5:5 10.5:6 1:3.5 3:4 7:10 2:3 1:2 17:12

Jul 1999 16:13 10.5:5 11:6 5:8 3:8 3:5 2:3 7:11 5:12

Aug 1999 17:13 10:5 10.5:6 7:8 2:4 5:11 7:9 6:11 7:12

Sep 1999 20.2:2.2 15.5:5 15.5:6 3:8 5:8 6:1 4:3 3:4 8:13

Oct 1999 20.6:2.2 17.5:5 15:5.5 3:8 3:4 7:11 13:10 3:2 7:13

Nov 1999 50:4 20:5 14:6 2:9 4:9 6:11 7:9 1:3 8:13

Dec 1999 40:3 15.5:5 13.5:5.5 3:8 3:4 9:11 4:5 6:11 7:12

Jan 2000 16.29:1.9 10..5:5 12.5:5.5 2:4 7:8 6:11 7:10 3:5 5:13

Feb 2000 15.71:2 10.5:5.5 10.5:5.5 5:9 3:8 2:5 7:9 5:12 6:13

Mar 2000 9:13 5:4 10.5:6 1:8 1:4 3:11 1:10 4:11 1:6

Apr 2000 8:13 6.5:6 1:6 1:4 1:2 3:5 3:10 5:11 2:13

May 2000 5.66:1 6.5:6 9.5:5 1:9 5:8 7:13 3:13 1:4 4:13

Jun 2000 4.33:1 6:5.5 8.5:5 3:8 1:2 6:11 2:3 5:12 4:13

Jul 2000 4.42:1 6.5:5.5 8:5 2:9 1:2 7:12 4:3 5:4 8:7

Aug 2000 18:13 10.5:5E

16:6.5

1:3 5:9 1:2 5:3 17:11 6:5

Sep 2000 8.8:1 14.5:5 2:5 1:3 1:2 9:8 7:11 2:5

Oct 2000 7:5 8:3 13.5:6 3:1 7:9 1:2 2:3 5:11 1:2

Nov 2000 7:5 5.03:3 10:5.5 2:5 1:3 7:11 3:10 2:5 5:14

Dec 2000 13.11 2.91 14:55 5:9 7:8 6:11 3:5 7:10 5-14

Table - 25

Total Sand Percentage of the Three Stations fromNovember 1998 to December 2000

Station I Station II Station IIIMonth & Year

Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village

Nov 1998 60.00 67.70 60.00 55.50 45.20 55.80 56.40 53.30 62.90

Dec 1998 63.00 70.90 60.00 52.80 50.85 58.90 57.40 60.00 59.00

Jan 1999 67.00 68.00 61.60 60.80 53.60 49.90 59.60 59.50 57.30

Feb 1999 68.00 68.00 60.70 56.60 53.50 59.80 53.70 60.20 57.60

Mar 1999 60.30 68.30 60.80 55.00 64.90 67.60 55.80 57.40 54.60

Apr 1999 64.90 69.10 69.70 52.70 57.70 68.10 56.00 56.60 57.30

May 1999 67.10 70.10 71.00 51.90 71.20 68.00 55.20 53.50 54.80

Jun 1999 68.50 70.00 69.30 52.70 65.50 67.20 59.80 57.60 52.80

Jul 1999 67.70 70.30 69.30 56.90 62.50 62.60 58.50 54.60 53.30

Aug 1999 64.20 70.40 68.90 52.80 65.50 66.10 55.30 54.30 53.30

Sep 1999 65.40 67.72 70.13 59.00 61.00 65.90 54.60 57.60 55.20

Oct 1999 66.22 68.76 70.85 55.90 58.60 60.70 55.10 56.40 52.90

Nov 1999 65.90 67.11 69.76 60.10 59.40 63.40 58.40 61.20 59.50

Dec 1999 75.53 70.21 69.61 60.80 68.00 65.90 57.60 55.40 59.70

Jan 2000 73.17 60.23 72.61 58.80 70.00 63.30 58.40 58.40 57.70

Feb 2000 68.49 59.91 72.35 57.80 65.00 65.20 61.00 59.50 56.60

Mar 2000 73.40 69.66 71.01 60.40 66.70 68.30 60.40 59.80 56.90

Apr 2000 74.31 60.60 68.31 59.40 70.30 67.40 57.30 60.60 57.30

May 2000 67.40 62.41 70.16 59.60 65.20 62.70 59.60 60.60 55.60

Jun 2000 72.86 70.11 77.93 60.20 58.40 64.90 55.70 62.10 60.80

Jul 2000 70.80 69.91 78.85 58.20 69.00 61.60 57.50 61.80 62.40

Aug 2000 76.10 71.50 77.20 60.30 62.30 63.80 59.20 59.60 57.70

Sep 2000 74.40 71.70 79.30 1 59.70 67.20 65.90 59.90 57.50 55.40

Oct 2000 78.20 67.10 82.30 60.20 68.30 65.60 58.40 57.80 58.50

Nov 2000 76.90 68.00 62.00 58.00 65.00 67.80 61.40 54.00 58.60

Dec 2000 74.47 70.75 77.90 566.00 66.70 53.80 56.40 57.30

88

Table - 26

Bio-chemical Analysis of Birds Guano of Koonthakulam Bird Sanctuary

S. No. Parameters Studied

1. N 220.500 kg/ha 3.88%

2. P 255.750 kg/ha 0.66%

3. K 428.125 kg/ha 0.343%

4. Ca 260.520 mg/i 0.130%

5. Mg 97.386 mg/I 2.61%

6. Na 162.500 mg/i 0.975%

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