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Chapter 28

The Islamic Empires

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The Islamic empires, 1500-1800

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The Ottoman Empire (1289-1923)Osman leads bands of seminomadic Turks

to become ghazi: Muslim religious warriorsCaptures Anatolia with light cavalry and

volunteer infantryLater, heavy cavalry

In Balkans, forced Christian families to surrender young boys to military service: devshirmeOften grew up to be exceptionally loyal

Janissaries

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Mehmed II (“the Conqueror,” r. 1451-1481)Capture of Constantinople, 1453Renamed IstanbulTransformation from warrior sultan to

emperor of “two lands” (Europe, Asia) and “two seas” (Black Sea, Mediterranean)

Planned to capture Pope, unsuccessful

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Suleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566)Expanded into Asia, EuropeBesieged Vienna, 1529Develops naval power

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The Safavid EmpireIsmail young military leader, r. 1501-1524Orphaned, parents killed by enemiesBecomes Shah, proclaims official religion of

realm Twelver ShiismTwelve infallible imams after Muhammad12th imam in hiding, ready to take powerWore distinctive red hat, called quzilbash

(“red heads”)Empire called Safavid, after Safi al-Din

(1252-1334), Sufi thinker

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Shiite Pilgrims at Karbala

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Battle of Chaldiran (1514)Ottoman Selim the Grim attacks SafavidsHeavy use of Ottoman gunpowder

technology give them the upper handIsmail escapes, two centuries of ongoing

conflictShah Abbas the Great (r. 1588-1629)

revitalizes weakened Safavid empireReforms administration, militaryExpands tradeMilitary expansion

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ReadingReport on Persia, Persians, and Abbas I

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The Mughal EmpireZahir al-Din Muhammad (Babur the Tiger),

Chagatai Turk, invades northern India for plunder, 1523

Gunpowder technology gives Babur advantage

Founds Mughal (Persian for Mongol) dynasty

Expands through most of Indian subcontinent

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Akbar (r. 1556-1605)Grandson of BaburWins fear and respect after throwing

Adham Khan, leader of the army, out the window twiceSecond time just to make sure he was dead

Created centralized governmentDestroyed Hindu kingdom of VijayanagarReligiously tolerant, promoted “Divine Fait

h”Syncretic form of Islam and Hinduism

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ReadingPolitical outlook

and how it manifested itself in the empires of the chapter.

Video clip of Akbar and the founding of his capital and religion

Another video of Akbar that depicts his rule

British Museum exhibit of the Mughals

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Aurangzeb (r. 1659-1707)Expands Mughal empire into southern IndiaHostile to Hinduism

Demolished Hindu temples, replaced with mosques

Tax on Hindus to encourage conversion

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Common Elements of Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal EmpiresEmpires based on military conquest

(“gunpowder empires”)Prestige of dynasty dependent on piety and

military prowess of the rulerClose relations with Sufism, ghazi tradition

Steppe Turkish traditionsIssuance of unilateral decrees Intra-family conflicts over power

1595 Sultan massacres 19 brothers (some infants), 15 expectant women (strangulation with silk)

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Women and PoliticsWomen officially banned from political

activityBut tradition of revering mothers, 1st wives

from Chinggis KhanSüleyman the Magnificent defers to

concubine Hürrem SultanaOriginally Roxelana, Ukrainian womanConvinces husband to murder eldest son in

favor of her own child

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Agriculture and TradeAmerican crops effect less dramatic change

in Muslim empiresCoffee, tobacco importantInitial opposition from conservative circles,

fearing lax morality of coffee housesPopulation growth also reflects territorial

additions and lossesTrade with English East India Company,

French East India Company, and Dutch VOC

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Population Growth

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1500 1600 1700 1800

Mughal

Safavid

Ottoman

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Religious DiversityOttoman Empire: Christians, JewsSafavid Empire: Zoroastrians, Jews,

ChristiansMughal Empire: Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians,

Christians, SikhsMughal Akbar most tolerant

Received Jesuits politely, but resented Christian exclusivity

Enthusiastic about syncretic Sikhism, self-serving “Divine Faith”

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Status of Religious MinoritiesNon-Muslim protected people: dhimmi

Payment of special tax: jizyaFreedom of worship, property, legal affairs

Ottoman communities: millet system of self-administration

Mughal rule: Muslims supreme, but work in tandem with HindusUnder Akbar, jizya abolishedReaction under Aurangzeb

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Capital CitiesIstanbul cultural capital of Ottoman empire,

massive monumental architectureRededication of Hagia Sofia church as Aya

Sofiya mosqueIshafan major Persian cityAkbar builds magnificent Fatehpur Sikri

Chooses site without sufficient water supply, abandoned

Taj Mahal example of Mughal architecture

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Deterioration of Imperial LeadershipOttoman princes become lazy through luxury

Selim the Sot (r. 1566-1574)Ibrahim the Crazy (r.1640-1648)

Attempts to isolate them compounds the problem

Religious tensions between conservatives and liberals intensifyRole of women

Wahhabi movement in Arabia denounces Ottomans as unfit to ruleForce destruction of observatory, printing press

Safavid Shiites persecute Sunnis, non-Muslims and even Sufis

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Economic and Military Decline Foreign trade controlled by EuropeansMilitary, administrative network expensive

to maintainJanissaries mutiny when paid with debased

coinage, 1589, other revolts followUnproductive warsEuropean military technology advances

faster than Ottomans can purchase it

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Cultural ConservatismEuropeans actively studying Islamic

cultures for purposes of trade, missionary activities

Islamic empires less interested in outside world

Swiftly fell behind in technological developmentE.g. Jews from Spain establish 1st printing

press in Anatolia in late 15th centuryBut printing of books in Turkish and Arabic

forbidden until 1729Handwritten books preferred, but weak levels of

dissemination

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The Ottoman Empire in DeclineOttoman empire reaches peak of military

expansion in late 17th centuryDefeated by Austrians, Russians, largely

due to European advances in technology and strategy

Elite Janissary corps involved in palace intrigue

Semi-independent local warlords use mercenaries, slave armies to support Sultan in return for imperial favor

Massive corruption, misuse of tax revenues

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Territorial LossesRussia takes territories in Caucasus, central

AsiaNationalist uprisings drive Ottomans out of

BalkansNapoleon’s unsuccessful attack on Egypt

spurs local revolt against Ottomans under Muhammad Ali (r. 1805-1848)Nominally subordinate to Sultan, but

threatened capture of IstanbulBritish support Ottomans only to avoid

possible Russian expansion

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Territorial losses of the Ottoman empire, 1800-1914

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Ottoman EconomyImports of cheap manufactured goods place

stress on local artisans, urban riots resultExport-dependent Ottoman economy

increasingly relies on foreign loansBy 1882 Ottomans unable to pay even

interest on loans, forced to accept foreign administration of debts

Capitulations: agreements that exempted Europeans from Ottoman lawExtraterritoriality gives tax-free status to foreign

banks, businesses

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Early Reforms Attempts to reform taxation, increase

agricultural output, and reduce corruptionSultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) remodeled

army on European linesJanissaries revolt, kill new troops, imprison

SultanSultan Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839) attempts

same, has Janissaries massacred Also reforms schools, taxation, builds

telegraph, postal service

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Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) Era, 1839-1876Pace of reform accelleratedDrafted new law codesUndermined power of traditional religious

eliteFierce opposition from religious

conservatives, bureacracyAlso opposition from radical Young

Ottomans, who wanted constitutional government

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The Young Turk Era1876 radical dissident elements stage a coup,

install Abdül Hamid II as Sultan (r. 1876-1909)Constitution, representative government adopted,

but suspended within the year, Many liberals exiled, executed

Principal organization; Ottoman Society for Union and Progress: The Young Turk PartyFounded by Ottomans in exile in ParisCalled for rapid, secular reformsForced Abdül Hamid II to restore parliament, then

dethroned him in favor of Mehmed V Rashid (r. 1909-1918)

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Young Turk RuleAttempted to establish Turkish hegemony

over far-flung empireTurkish made official language, despite large

numbers of Arabic and Slavic language speakers

Yet could not contain forces of decline