Chapter 28Chapter 28

Affluence and Its Discontents, 1954–1963

Foreign Policy, 1954–1960 Foreign Policy, 1954–1960

The New Look Less reliance on expensive ground forces Greater reliance on airpower, advanced nuclear

capabilities, and covert action Massive retaliation

Threat of U.S. atomic weaponry would hold communism in check

International alliances Expanded NATO to include West Germany (1955) Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (1954) Central Treaty Organization (1959)

Foreign Policy, 1954–1960Foreign Policy, 1954–1960 (cont)

Arms limitation “Open Skies” proposal, 1955

Focus of Cold War shifted to Third World Use of CIA covert action around the world

Thereafter, CIA grew enormously in influence and power

Trade and aid Mutual Security and Military Assistance Program

United States and the Third WorldUnited States and the Third World

Latin America Talked of supporting democracy Regularly supported dictatorial regimes as long as they

accepted U.S. investment Caused resentment among Latin Americans Cuba situation demonstrated anti-American sentiment

Egypt Rise of Gamal Abdel Nasser

Call for Arab nationalism and “positive neutralism” Nationalization of Suez Canal, 1956

Caused U.S. rift with Britain Loss of U.S. prestige and power in Middle east

United States and the Third WorldUnited States and the Third World (cont)

Middle East Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957

Defense of Middle Eastern countries against “international communism”

Followed up with intervention in Lebanon and Jordan

Vietnam Drive for independence under way after World War II

French decided to withdraw in 1954 Geneva Peace Accords

Temporary division in North and South Vietnam Eventual elections for reunification

Administration belief in “domino theory” Provided aid to government in South Vietnam Feared the loss of another Asian nation to

communism

Affluence—A “People of Plenty”Affluence—A “People of Plenty” Economic growth

Made in America The Affluent Society

Highways and waterways Highway Act of 1956

First centrally planned transportation in nation’s history

Dams, irrigation canals, reservoirs Transformed Western agriculture Created huge governmental bureaucracies Environmental consequences

Labor–Management Accord

Affluence— A “People of Plenty”Affluence— A “People of Plenty” (cont)

Retreat from labor demands for “management prerogatives”

Focus on wages and fringe benefit issues Disavowal of wildcats Real economic gains for most workers American standard of living became envy of world

Political pluralism Exaltation of role of religion in American life

Multi-denominational emphasis Reverence and celebrity for individual religious leaders

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Steady Growth of Gross National Product,

1940–1970

Discontents of AffluenceDiscontents of Affluence Conformity

Cultural critics condemned lack of individuality in American society

William H. Whyte, Jr., The Organization Man (1955) David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd (1950) Vance Pickard, The Hidden Persuaders (1957)

Youth Culture Increasing concerns about young people Rock ‘n’ roll music

Mass Culture Critics decried mass-marketed products Fear that “bad” art was driving “good” from the

marketplace Television became a prominent target of social critics

Decried both quality of programming and its impact on the public

Changing Gender PoliticsChanging Gender Politics

New Suburbs Modern conveniences Women turned to other sources for child rearing advice

Dr. Spock Y.M.C.A “Male revolt” versus family values

Women in workforce Greater number of women entered into workforce Birth control pill Family wage created a barrier to better pay for women Roles of women in society were changing in this period

Fight Against Discrimination:1953–Fight Against Discrimination:1953–19601960 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)

School segregation violated constitutional guarantee of equal protection under the law

Implied that all segregated public facilities were unconstitutional

Race could no longer be treated as simply a regional issue South becoming more like rest of the country Racial composition of rest of country becoming more

like South Segregationists promised “massive resistance” to Brown

Violence, vigilantism, terror became rampant

Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955–1956

Fight Against DiscriminationFight Against Discrimination (cont)

Vaulted Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. into national prominence

Spurred creation of Southern Christian Leadership Conference

Civil Rights Act of 1957 Procedure to expedite lawsuits by African Americans

who claimed their voting rights had been violated Created permanent Civil Rights Commission to hear

complaints Politics of civil rights

Southern Democrats in Congress tried to block real action on civil rights

Southern states defied Brown order on school desegregation

Eisenhower forced to act in Little Rock crisis, 1957

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Shifts in African American Population Patterns, 1940–1960

Fight Against DiscriminationFight Against Discrimination (cont)

Eisenhower lacked a coherent Indian policy Termination

Treat Indians as individuals rather than members of a tribe Relocation

Encourage Indians to leave reservations and take jobs in urban areas

Programs had disastrous consequences for Indians

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Total Urban and Rural Indian Population in the U.S. 1940–1980

Large numbers of immigrants from Puerto Rico and Mexico

Bracero program encouraged emigration of agricultural workers

“Operation Wetback” Mass Deportations of Mexican immigrants

Organizations appeared to crusade for better treatment for immigrants League of United Latin American Citizens Unity League

Increased concentration in cities rather than rural areas

Fight Against DiscriminationFight Against Discrimination (cont)

Fight Against DiscriminationFight Against Discrimination (cont)

Growth of suburbs created new urban issues Redlining contributed to decay of inner cities Urban renewal often amounted to “urban

removal” Public housing proved a grave disappointment New and Fair Deal urban programs considered

failures by end of 1950s

Debating the Role of GovernmentDebating the Role of Government

Eisenhower and the new conservatives Ike’s centrist policies earned ire of political conservatives Barry Goldwater, Conscience of a Conservative (1960) William F. Buckley, Up from Liberalism (1959)

Advocates of a more active government Liberals criticized Eisenhower for failing to use

government power to address pressing public issues Especially critical of failure to address racial discrimination

Debating the Role of Government Debating the Role of Government (cont)

Others criticized apparent shortcomings in national security policy

Gaither Report (1957) warned of holes in the nation’s defenses

Education policy also came in for scrutiny Rudolph Flesch, Why Johnny Can’t Read (1955) National Defense Education Act (1958)

Calls for increased social welfare spending John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society (1958)

Kennedy Years: Foreign PolicyKennedy Years: Foreign Policy Democrats ran John F. Kennedy (JFK)

New Frontier Support for civil rights Social programs Tax cuts and deficit spending Heavy defense spending and “flexible” response to

Communist threat

Republicans ran Richard M. Nixon Remained on defensive throughout campaign Performed poorly in first of several televised debates

Kennedy won narrow electoral victory

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Presidential Election, 1960

Kennedy: Foreign Policy Kennedy: Foreign Policy (cont)

Dramatic Initiatives Peace Corps Alliance for Progress

Cuba Bay of Pigs, April 1961 Operation Mongoose Cuban missile crisis, October 1962

Berlin Berlin Wall constructed, August 1961

Southeast Asia Goal to build South Vietnam into a viable non-Communist

state Test case for flexible response Coup against Ngo Dinh Diem, November 1963

Kennedy Years: Domestic PolicyKennedy Years: Domestic Policy General policymaking goals

Tax cuts for everyone, special cuts for corporations Higher minimum wage and urban renewal Crusade against organized crime

Civil Rights Concerned about Southern conservatives Sit-in movement, early 1960 CORE and SNCC Freedom rides, 1961

Forced to send marshals to protect riders Universities of Mississippi and Alabama

Forced to intervene to protect black students Executive order banning segregation in public housing,

November 1952

Kennedy: Domestic PolicyKennedy: Domestic Policy (cont)

Moderate civil rights bill, February 1963 Called to action by violence in Birmingham, spring of 1963

Support for stronger civil rights bill March on Washington, August 1963

Women’s issues Presidential Commission on the Status of Women

Documented discrimination in employment opportunities and wages

Equal Pay Act of 1963

Kennedy: Domestic PolicyKennedy: Domestic Policy (cont)

Kennedy assassinated Shot in Dallas on November 22, 1963 Official report blamed Lee Harvey Oswald as lone

assassin Conspiracy theories and uncertainties remain decades

later

Web

Discussion QuestionsDiscussion Questions

Assess the Eisenhower presidency. What were his accomplishments and failures?

How did JFK deal with the Soviet Union? Give particular attention to the Cuban Missile Crisis.

How did Ike and JFK deal with the issue of civil rights? Who was more effective?

Examine JFK’s presidency. Why do some consider him a great president? What were his achievements?