Women & Men in Management

Chapter 3 – Becoming Women and Men

Research Methods◦ Vote counting

Used in early reviews of studies in sex differences Simple tally

◦ Meta-analysis Commonly used today Statistical, quantitative methods Yields more complex and often different results than

vote counting does

Sex Differences

Preference in toys◦ Boys

Action figures, blocks, guns and swords, trucks, sports collectibles, construction toys

Emphatic masculinity: Hasbro’s G.I. Joe line◦ Girls

Dolls, dollhouses, jewelry, pretend kitchen, tea sets, play houses

Emphatic femininity: Mattel’s Barbie

Children’s Interests & Activities

Play style◦ Boys

Physically aggressive, fighting/mock fighting◦ Girls

Reading, calmer/more domestic activities Digital Divide

◦ Boys View computers as a way to achieve mastery Participate in virtual video games

◦ Girls View computers as a way to accomplish tasks Writing papers and social communication

Children’s Interests & Activities

Household Chores◦ Boys

Typically do more outdoor tasks Are often paid for their chores

◦ Girls Typically do indoor chores such as caretaking,

cleaning, and food preparation Chores are usually done unpaid

Children’s Interests & Activities

Paid Labor◦ Boys

Lawn mowers, busboys, manual laborers◦ Girls

Babysitters, waitresses, food counter workers

Switching interests◦ Girls can more easily show interest in boy-related

activities than boys may show interest in girl-related activities

Children’s Interests & Activities

Aggression◦ Males

Typically exhibit more physical aggression that produces pain than females do

◦ Females Usually engage in more verbal and indirect aggression

A coping mechanism to being less physically aggressive than males

Altruism◦ Males and females help others in areas in which they

feel the most competent Men offer heroic or chivalrous help, while women offer

nurturing or caring help

Adults’ Social Behavior

Skills:◦ Express oneself using the face, body, and voice◦ Assess the meaning of nonverbal cues from

others◦ Recall having met or seen people

Females demonstrate higher nonverbal skills◦ Possibly due to being in weaker or lower status

positions than males, and so they must monitor other’s reactions to themselves

Nonverbal Communication

Broverman study◦ Competence vs. Warmth

Why are gender stereotypes so stable?◦ Self-fulfilling prophecy◦ Learning at a young age they become fixed◦ Help people categorize themselves and others

When may they change?◦ In the face of evidence of changing social roles

Example: Stereotypes of men are more static, because men have experienced less social change than women

Gender Stereotypes

Sandra Bem◦ Challenged the assumption that masculinity and

femininity were completely opposite (1970s)◦ Defined the two traits as independent dimensions

Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI)◦ Measured beliefs about oneself in relation to

traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity

Gender Identity

Interdependent self-construal◦ People of importance are included in your personal

representation (more feminine) Independent self-construal

◦ Others are seen as separate and distinct from yourself (more masculine)

Psychological androgynous ◦ A gender identity with high amounts of both masculinity

and femininity

New Terms: BSRI

Classification of Gender Identity

Femininity Score

High Low

Masculinity Score

High Androgynous Masculine

Low Feminine Undifferentiated

So what is gender identity?◦ Beliefs about the extent to which one possesses

masculine traits and the extent to which one possesses feminine traits

◦ Beliefs about oneself in social relationships

The debate on androgyny: different views1. Conformity with gender stereotypes2. Break from stereotypes, pursue androgyny3. There should be no ideal gendered behavior, be

yourself instead of living up to a standard

Gender Identity

Sexism: prejudice displayed toward members of one sex◦ Hostile sexism◦ Benevolent sexism

What are the implications of each type of sexism?

Sexism

Hostile and benevolent sexism toward women◦ Men scored much higher in hostile sexism◦ Women rejected hostile sexism overall, but often

accept benevolent sexism

Hostile and benevolent sexism toward men◦ Women score higher than men on hostile sexism◦ Women score lower than men on benevolent

sexism

The Global Perspective

Old-fashioned sexism◦ Blatant◦ Associated with endorsement of traditional

gender roles in the workplace◦ Differential treatment of women and men

Modern sexism◦ Denial of existence of sex discrimination◦ Antagonism toward women’s demands of

discontinuing alleged sex discrimination ◦ Lack of support for programs designed to help

women in the workplace

Sexism in the Times

Old-fashioned racism◦ Overt expressions of hostility and antagonism

toward another race Modern racism (“aversive” or “symbolic”)

◦ More subtle◦ Endorses racial equality and avoids obvious acts

of discrimination to maintain a fair and just self-image

◦ Denies the existence of racial discrimination◦ Displays acts of “microaggression”

Avoidance, closed communication, failure to help

Racism in the Times

Why do sex differences occur?◦ Biological forces (nature)

Sex differences in adults and children are innate The view on evolutionary processes Proven biological sex differences come from genes,

hormone levels, nerve cell activity, and brain structure

◦ Social-environmental forces (nurture) Family, peers, media, schools, employers, and

pressures to conform cause sex differences No agreement has been made, yet both

have some effect

Nature and Nurture

How do parents affect gender socialization?◦ Provide opportunity for imitation and

reinforcement Children more often imitate same-sex models

◦ Emphasizing gender stereotypes in household chores and play activities

◦ In their beliefs about gender stereotypes and roles

◦ Employment and workplace experiences The effects of maternal employment: more prevalent

in daughters than sons

Gender Socialization: Parents

How do schools affect gender socialization? ◦ Adult role models in the school

Sex segregation of positions◦ Graduation rates and test scores show that school

systems are successful in educating males and females Differences:

Girls get better grades than boys across the board Females students tend to be more disciplined and

respectful of rules and regulations Boys receive more classroom attention

Gender Socialization: Schools

How does the mass media affect gender socialization?◦ Television

Provides a view of the outside world and affects perceptions of social reality

Educational programming may have positive effects Characterized by mental and physical passivity Teaches children behavior, gender stereotypes, and

racial/ethnic portrayals Commercials and products

Displays diversity

Gender Socialization: Mass Media

Stereotyping causes:◦ An increase of prejudice and discrimination◦ Overgeneralization

A stereotype rarely applies to all members of a group◦ An implication that differences between members

of different groups are a result of their group membership

Limitations of Gender Stereotypes

Female gender role encourages◦ Dependence and surrender of control◦ Self-awareness◦ Expression of feelings

Male gender role encourages◦ Aggressiveness and competitiveness◦ Suppression of feelings and dominance

Mortality and health statistics◦ Women are more likely to experience frequent,

treatable illnesses◦ Men are more likely to experience more life-

threatening diseases and permanent disability

Limitations of Gender Roles

Sex differences Gender differences Gender stereotypes Gender roles Vote counting Meta-Analysis Emphatic masculinity Emphatic femininity Aggression Altruism Nonverbal communications Competent Warm Masculine Feminine Gender identity Interdependent self-construal

Independent self-construal Psychological androgyny Sexism Hostile sexism Benevolent sexism Old-fashioned sexism Modern sexism Old-fashioned racism Modern racism Biological forces Evolutionary processes Social-environmental forces Maternal employment Paternal employment Reflected appraisals model of self-

esteem Competencies model of self-esteem

Chapter 3 Terms