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CHAPTER 3- CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Introduction

After going through the available literature on the topic, conceptual framework has been

designed. The study analysed the three theoretical approaches namely gender centered

perspective, organisational perspective and gender- organisational-system perspective

(Fagenson, 1990). However the study added the forth approach i.e. work perspective and

concluded that GWOS approach is more appropriate to understand the problem of few

women in management in Indian corporate world by analyzing factors from four

dimensions namely Personal, Work, Organisational and Social angle.

Before discussion the conceptual framework of the study, the three approaches are

discussed in brief in the following section.

3.2 Theoretical Perspectives

The first perspective is the gender-centered perspective or person-centered perspective. It

believes that women's inadequate representation at the higher levels in the management is

a result of the internal factors namely skills, qualification, traits, bahaviours, cognitions

and attitudes (Homer, 1972; Putnam and Heinen, 1976; Terborg, 1977; Harragan, 1977;

Riger and Galligan, 1980; Fagenson, 1986;). In addition, executive’s career success is

also attributed to the ‘internal’ factors like their abilities, hard work and performance.

However, many women executives acknowledge the ‘external factors’ like luck and work

ease for their career success (Deaux and Farris, 1974). Further, Maccoby and Jacklin

(1974) have mentioned that these attributes depend on women's own performance

expectations, level of self-confidence and ability and self-assessments. Gender-centered

approach has recognized women’s fear of success as a significant reason affecting

women’s growth at the higher levels in the management (Horner, 1972). Various reasons

were identified for the differences in behaviour between the sexes likes differential

gender identity formation, sex-role socialization and differences in the construction of

reality.

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According to organisation structure perspective, it is argued that the differences between

men and women in their attitudes and behavior are the outcomes of the differences in the

power structures and opportunity provided in organisations and not due to the gender

(Kanter, 1977). It believes that organisation structures form executive’s behavior on the

job (Fagenson, 1990, 1993). According to Kanter (1977), advantageous positions

comprising of power and opportunities are occupied by individuals whose gender

category is in the majority (that is, males), whereas disadvantageous positions with less

power and opportunities are occupied by individuals whose gender category is less in

number (that is, females). It is further argued by Kanter (1977) that persons in the

advantageous jobs and positions develop behaviours and attitudes that help them to grow

further, on the other hand, person in the disadvantages position develop attitude and

behaviours that justify their positions (Fagenson, 1990). Further, if women executives

reach to the higher level jobs, they try to imitate the behaviours of men executives

occupying higher positions (Kanter, 1977; Riger and Galligan, 1980).

Under gender–organisation–system (GOS) perspective, the simultaneous interaction

between the person, the organisation and the social systems is accepted. Further this

perspective argues that women’s limited career growth is a joint effect of both gender and

organisational structures that forms the executive’s behavior at work (Fagenson, 1990;

Fagenson & Horowitz, 1985). The perspective also includes the other organisational

variables like corporate culture, ideology, historical background and policies. It also

includes the social and institutional systems factors like expectations, stereotypes, in

which organisations function (Martin et al., 1983).

From the three theoretical perspectives discussed above, the gender-centered and

organisation structure perspectives may limit the conclusions drawn from executive’s

behaviors and opinions in organisations. The gender-centered perspective assumes that

women’s own traits and behaviours limit their career growth. It does not include any

organisational or social factors (Fagenson, 1993). It depends on sex role theory for

identifying appropriate behaviour of executives. It assumes that the one gender who

dominates the hierarchy is superior to the other (Scott, 1988). This perspective does not

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provide adequate answer to why the progress rate of women at the managerial position

has remained so slow despite their high qualification. The second perspectives, the

organisational structure perspective fails to identify the factors other than the structure of

the organisation. It excludes the other important organisational factors like culture,

training and development policies and other organisational policies like promotion

recruitment polices and rewarding polices. Therefore, in the present study GWOS

perspective i.e. Gender, Work, Organisational and Social perspective have been adopted

for comprehensive and in-depth analysis.

3.3 Conceptual Framework

In accordance with GWOS perspective, the present study attempts to determine why

women have restricted access to the corporate boardrooms. It explores the characteristics

of the individuals, work context, organisation context and social context which might be

influencing executive's behaviours, attitudes and cognitions. The study believes that the

present status of women in Indian management is caused by four factors namely

individual factors, organisational factors and social systems factors. The complexity of

the study increases as all the four factors function concurrently (Terborg, 1981; Martin,

1983). The study follows the assumptions of GWOS approach which are as follows-

1. Behavior and attitudes in organisations are form due to the continuous interaction

between person characteristics (gender), work situations, organisational situations and

social systems.

2. All four factors jointly influences women in management.

3. Characteristics of people, work and organisational situations and social systems needs

be analysed as combined determinants of women’s career success at the management

positions.

The study has adopted a broad approach to understand the problem of few women in

management in Indian corporate world by analyzing factors from four angles namely

Personal, Work, Organisational and Social as shown in figure 3.1. The complexity of the

study increases as all the four factors function simultaneously. In short, all factors are

equally important and contribute for today’s status of women in Indian management.

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Figure 3.1: Determinants of Women in Management

3.3.1 Personal Variables

The current study has incorporated gender-centered approach by including factors

identified by Human Capital Theory and Job Competition Model. The study has

included individual characteristics which may contribute towards success or failure in

management career of an executive namely personality, skill, work experience,

qualification, family responsibilities like marriage pressure, motherhood pressure,

family members support and external support system presented in figure 3.2.

The study has included demographic variables namely age, gender, marital status,

number of kids, age of kids, number of dependents, qualification and specialisation and

total work experience. Work experience includes total years of service in one or many

organisations which gives an opportunity to an individual to get acquainted with various

job and experiences and develops individual for more challenging job. Women, during

their career are not involved in strategic decision making processes. As a result, they

lack exposure to line experience which is core element in vertical career growth. It

restricts them from taking challenging and difficult tasks, which ultimately results in

lesser women at the top (Sheila Wellington, et. al. 2003). This study has included total

WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

Personal Factors

Work Factors

Organisational Factors

Social Factors

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work experience, both full time and part time, to understand whether it has any impact

on career growth of the executives.

Figure 3.2 Personal Factors

Personality is the dynamic psychophysical systems within the individual which decide his

exclusive way of reaction to his environment. According to Stephen Robbins,

et.al.(2009), “Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and

interact with other persons”. In simple terms, personality is the sum total of relatively

permanent characteristics that a person possesses namely positive attitude, self-

confidence, emotional stability, extrovert or introvert, self discipline and dedication.

According to the Big Five Model, there are five types of personalities namely

extraversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism. The study

attempted to identify which type of personality is prominent at top management levels.

Managerial skills can be grouped under three broad headings namely technical skill,

human skill and conceptual Skill (Aswathappa K, 2009). Technical skills are job-specific

techniques and knowledge which depend upon the manager’s position in the organisation.

Human skill consists of the ability to lead, understand, modify, manage and control the

behavior of person and groups. It includes the skills to coordinate, communicate and

motivate people. Conceptual skills include the ability to analyze the situation

WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

PERSONAL

FACTORS

Demography

Personality

Managerial Skills

Qualification

Family Responsibilites

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systematically, drawing a big picture and taking relevant steps to cure the problem.

Higher managerial positions require high conceptual skills to plan and organise the long-

term vision of the organisation (Jones and George, 2009). The present study has included

human skills, technical and conceptual skills to identify which skill is more important for

the individual’s career growth and whether there is any difference between managerial

skill of men and women executives.

Qualification can be defined as an academic and professional education availed by a

person, essential for managerial positions. Lack of educational background may restrict

women from advancing further in the pyramidal hierarchy structure of the organisations

(Keller Brow, 1988). According to UGC 2013 records, women are still more

concentrated in fields like Arts and Commerce, whereas men pursue Science and

Technical studies. In India, the choice of stream of Higher Secondary Education is

usually selected by parents and elderly guardians. Parents do usually give preference to

the educational streams which is feminine for daughter and masculine for their son. They

do prefer to put their daughter in Commerce, Arts and son in Science and Engineering.

As result when an opportunity exists, usually, there is a shortage of qualified and trained

women candidates to absorb this opportunity. Therefore, study has included qualification

and specialisation factors to identify whether such difference exists today also and

whether it has any impact on women’s career growth.

Family responsibilities refer to all those household duties that every person needs to

perform in order to maintain his/her family. Women are still seen as primary caretaker

and need to perform more household chores than men (Leigh Funston and Hwafern

Quach, December 2008). She has to do work like cooking food, looking after kids and

family members, cleaning house etc. It is also assumed that every working woman has to

perform all these household chores with or without support of family members. Such

higher family responsibilities can create hurdle for women’s career growth.

To analyze the association among these personal variables and status of women in

management hypotheses were formed and tested using multivariate statistical methods.

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3.3.2 Work Related Variables

Work related factors included in the study are type of work, key assignments, department,

average outdoor duty hours in a week, average in-door office hours in a week, work

environment, Nature of Work and Work pressures depicted in figure 3.3.

An exposure to key and challenging jobs is a key factor which can open doors of key

position for women. A good exposure to challenging job assignment like mergers,

acquisition, takeovers and new product developments, offers an opportunity to train and

develop a person. Such on-the-job training enhances executive’s probability of heading

key positions in the organisation.

Supportive and co-operative work environment is very essential to tackle day to day

problems and facilitates appropriate decisions making. Peers and supervisor’s support can

make women’s corporate life relatively easy and their valuable guidance can help them to

take vital decisions. Supportive and co-operative peers and supervisors perform a vital

role in women executive’s career growth (Leigh Funston and Hwafern Quach, December,

2008).

Figure 3.3 Work Factors

WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

WORK RELATED FACTORS

Exposure to Key Assignments

Department

Working Hours (Indoor, Outdoor)

Work Pressure

Nature of Work

Work Environment

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To analyze the association among work related variables and status of women in

management hypotheses were formed and tested using multivariate statistical methods.

3.3.3 Organisational Variables

Response Dependence Theory and Institutional Theories highlighted organisational

variables, operating within the boundaries of the organisation which need to be

considered as determinants of the percentage of management positions held by women.

Therefore the study has included type of industry, organisational status, age of the

organisation, organisational policies, exposure to key assignments, support from peers

and supervisor, organisational culture, structure of the organisation, networking,

mentoring and coaching depicted in figure 3.4.

The age, size, organisational status and nature of industry also restrict women from

achieving top management positions. The study conducted by Baron, Mittman and

Newman (1991) found that old organisations resist change in the organisational hierarchy

than the new organisations and less willing to hire women at the management positions.

The study conducted by Terry et al. (1994) also supports that older organisations which

follow traditional management style may prefer men at the top level management as

compared to women executives.

The ‘deep structure’ of the organisational is “the collection of values, history, culture, and

practices that form the unquestioned, ‘normal’ way of working in organisation” (Aruna

Rao, et.al). The reflection of these four things can be noticed in six key elements- work

specialisation (division of work), departmentalisation, chain of command, span of

control, centralisation and decentralisation (Robins S P., Judge Timothy A. and Sanghi

Seema, 2009). Qualified women always prefer to work where chances for advancement

are high. Companies, keen on performance and looking for certain attributes in their

human resource also try to tap these qualified talents available in the industry without any

gender preferences. Companies with more women at the non-management positions will

place women at the management levels just to attract more qualified and talented human

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resources (Morrison et. al., 1987; Terry C et. al, 1994). It also avoids gender difference

which may affect the performance (Tsui & O’Reilly, 1989).

Figure 3.4 -Organisational Factors

Organisational Culture is “a system of shared meaning held by members of the

organisation that distinguishes one organisation from other” (Stephen Robbins, 2009). It

includes ethics, flexibility, support, fairness, innovation, risk taking, attention to details,

result orientation, people orientation, aggressiveness, and stability. Corporate culture

includes relationships between individuals, beliefs, values and functions that lead the

organisational decisions aimed at achievement of its objectives. The culture of an

organisation is often expressed through a statement ‘the way we do things around here’

and consists of spoken / unspoken values, norms, and behaviors that become the natural

way of doing things in the organisation. The organisational culture also affects women’s

WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

ORGANISATIONAL

FACTORS

Nature of the Organisation

Structure of the Organisation

Culture Of the Organisation

Management Practises & Policies

Networking

Mentoring and Coaching & Role Model

Training & Development

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presence on board. If organisational culture is fair, unbiased and result oriented, it

enhances women’s career growth.

Organisational management policies and practices are statements of broad guidelines that

direct decision making process in the organisation. There are many organisational

policies such as selection, training, career development, leadership development,

succession planning and work-family balancing policies which may impact the working

women in the management as presented in figure 3.5. The Human Resource Dependence

Theory suggests that the firms facing problem of recruiting and retaining competent

employees, may try non-traditional ways by hiring women and minority candidates. A

study conducted by Terry C. et.al (1994) found that the organisation which emphasis on

training and development will have more women at the management position. The

flexible work environment, childcare facilities and maternity leave benefit may have

constructive impact on women in management.

Figure 3.5 Organisational Policies and Practices

Management

Policies and

Practices

Recruitment

Training and Development

Career Development

Promotion

Transfers

Performance Appraisals

Work and Family Balancing

Succession Planning

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Network is an information system to give and receive the valuable assistance. These

formal and informal networks help executives to find and utilize the resources and

available opportunities. Management executives, who are lack socializing and

networking abilities may fall behind from those who have successfully developed strong

network, within and outside the organisation (Fred Luthans, 1988). Further, such old

boy’s network affects decisions about promotion, transfers and retention. Decision

makers, who are usually men, predominantly prefer to promote men to the next position

and women who lack networking abilities may fall behind their male counterparts

(Ridgeway, 1999).

Mentors are executives with an authority, power and access to resources and information

that is vital for career advancement. They may become a role model for some other

person and act as a teacher, guide, counsel, sponsor and coach, to help him/her in the

journey of career enhancement. In some organisations, mentors are formally appointed to

help women and men to develop themselves for the future opportunities. Although

women are given mentors, they are not promoted as compared to their male counterparts

(Herminia Ibarra, Nancy M, Carter & Christine Silva, 2010; ILO, 2004). Hence the study

explores the mentoring and coaching facilities available in the organisation and whether it

has any impact on the women’s career growth.

According to Gibson (2004), a role model is “a cognitive construction based on the

attributes of people in social roles an individual perceives to be similar to himself or

herself to some extent and desires to increase perceived similarity by emulating those

attributes”. A role model is an encouraging personality from whom one may learn many

skills, qualities and improve his/her behaviour and personality (Lockwood and Kunda

1997). Lack of role models is one of the most significant factors acting as barrier to

women career growth (Saadia Zahidi, Herminia Ibarra, 2010; ILO, 2000).

To analyze the association among organisational variables and status of women in

management following hypotheses are formed and tested using multivariate statistical

methods.

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3.3.4 Social Variables

Socio-cultural factors contribute to the development of strong beliefs, way of thinking

and set the pattern of accepted behavior in the society which is different for male and

female. Human Capital Theory attributes gender discrimination to women’s capacity,

personality and their own choices, without considering the social variables. Social

Factors which include gender stereotype, occupational segregation, gender beliefs, gender

inequality, gender stratification, patriarchy, general norms and cultural practices

prevailing in the country are the most significant factors acting as barriers to women

career growth (Saadia Zahidi and Herminia Ibarra 2010).

The principle of ‘Devaluation Hypothesis’ (England et al., 2000) and ‘Evaluative

Discrimination’ (Peterson T. and Saporta I., 2004) ultimately results in gender pay gap

where men are paid higher remunerations than women. In addition to this, the principal of

‘allocative discrimination’ also aggravate pay inequalities. Even within the particular job

whether female-dominated, male dominated or unisex dominated, women’s work is

devaluated and paid less than the male employees (Peterson T., Saporta I., 2004).

Wherever the salary levels are less, more women are found and vice-versa. It is also

applicable to the management job. It is not clear whether less salary attract more women

which need to be explored. Based on the literature review and in-depth interviews of

executives social factors are included in the study are presented in the figure 3.6.

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Figure 3.6 Social Factors

Gender stereotype represents social structure that continues to favour men and disfavor

women in the competitive race for prestige, status, power and money (Rosemarie Tong,

1989). Effective leadership is normally portrayed as masculine function and women are

assumed to be not suitable for these functions which demands masculine attributes. It

limits opportunities of advancement for women (Catalysts, 2004). According to ‘Gender

Role Congruence Theory’, managerial executives who ignore the gender norms and code-

of conduct described for managerial jobs are less likely to be absorbed for such positions

and achieve career success (Valian, 1998). When women executives demonstrate

aggressive, dominant and competitive gender identity and men executives demonstrate a

supportive gender identity, it is regarded as gender role incongruence. In these case both

men and women are not considered for managerial positions. Further, if women

demonstrate a supportive gender identity consistent with the caring, nurturing gender role

prescribed for women, still she is not considered a proper fit with the stereotypical

WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

SOCIAL FACTORS

Gender Preferences

Gender Streotypes

Occupational Segregation

Patriarchy

Gender Stratification

Gender Status Beliefs / Perceptions

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managerial prototype. In both the cases she is not considered suitable for managerial

roles.

Further, the Theory adds that men who enact a masculine gender identity are more likely

to succeed because their preferences and behaviors are consistent with the stereotypical

attributes prescribed for their sex.

Another factor included in the study is occupational segregation which refers to the

inclination of executives to work in diverse occupations thereby one gender dominates a

given professional category in the labour market. There can be two types of segregation

found in the labour market namely vertical segregation and horizontal segregation.

Vertical segregation or hierarchical segregation represents the over or under-crowing of a

particular group of workers in specific occupations or sectors with higher job stability,

income, prestige, status and power. Horizontal segregation refers to under or

overcrowding of a particular group in particular occupations or sectors, thus we can

observe certain occupations are male- intensive and others are female-intensive (Bettio

and Verashchagina, 2009).

Gender beliefs are also included in the study which represents universal classification of

women and men based on a narrow set of features. In simple terms, gender status belief

describes men as more competent than women and thus justifies disparities in the salary

difference, power position and extra privileges (Ridgeway C. L. et al. 1999; Eagly,

Wood, and Diekman 2000). Generally, gender beliefs give more importance to men;

consider them status worthy, competent and thus suitable for ‘important things’ and

higher positions. In-contrast, women are viewed as less capable, nicer and better at

common jobs and thus suitable for ‘less important and less valued’ jobs (Conway et al.

1996; Fiske et al. 2002).

In similar fashion, gender stratification ranks the sexes in such a manner that women will

have less power, prestige, information, resources and still acknowledged women’s value

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greater than men. They are denied and restricted all human and social rights and

possibilities (Eitzen, D. Stanley and Maxine Baca-Zinn, 2000).

Further, the patriarchy is a social unit in which men occupy a very dominant role and

control all important decision within and outside family. According to (Hazel Reeves and

Sally Baden, February 2000), patriarchy refers “to the systemic societal structures that

institutionalise male physical, social and economic power over women”. Patriarchy

principles over emphasize biological differences between executives and ensures that

men are always engaged in the leading, dominating or masculine role whereas women are

always have a subordinate or feminine role. The patriarchy also affect women

representation at the management levels, hence it is included in the study.

To analyze the association among social variables and status of women in management

hypotheses are formed and tested using multivariate statistical methods.