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Chapter 3
Cultureand
Society
Anthony GiddensMitchell Duneier
Richard P. Appelbaum
The Sociological Study of Culture
What Is Culture?– Values– Language – Norms – Symbols – Material goods
The Sociological Study of Culture
What Is Culture?– Values
• Abstract ideals shared by group Can change over time May differ within culture
– Norms• Principles or rules of social life Can change over time May differ within culture
– Material Goods• Physical objects a society creates that influence
the ways people live Material culture is rapidly becoming globalized
The Sociological Study of Culture
Culture and Society– Society is a system of interrelationships that
connects individuals• Culture could not exist without society and vice
versa– Culture serves as an important source of
conformity within society• Members learn norms in childhood• Social control is used when a person fails to
conform
The Sociological Study of Culture
Culture and Change: A “Cultural Turn” in Sociology?
– Cultural turn:• Sociology’s recent emphasis on understanding
role of culture in daily life Cultural tool kit: variety of scripts to draw on depending
on situation No single “reality” is applied to social situations
The Development of Human Culture
Early Human Culture– Culture enabled early humans to compensate
for physical limitations• Made tools• Hunted animals• Used fire• Made clothing• Established cooperative way of life
The Development of Human Culture
Nature or Nurture? – Are we shaped by biology or products of
learning?– Biologists, psychologists
• Emphasize biology– Sociologists
• Stress role of learning and culture• Humans make conscious choices, therefore
neither biology nor culture wholly determines behavior
The Development of Human Culture
Nature or Nurture? (cont)– Sociobiology
• Began in 1975 with Edward O. Wilson• Genes influence physical traits and behavior• Social scientists criticize sociobiology for claiming
that likelihood of displaying certain behaviors (such as violence) is genetic
The Development of Human Culture
How Nature and Nurture Interact– Sociologists acknowledge biology helps
shape behavior but their main concern is how behavior is learned through interactions with society• If biology were all-important, cultures would be
similar or identical but this is not true• All cultures have common characteristics
(language, sexual behavior, etc.) but large variety exists in how they are played out
The Development of Human Culture
Cultural Diversity– Industrialized societies have subcultures
• Diverse cultures within a society• Different languages or cultural patterns
– Culture helps perpetuate norms, but subcultures offer opportunities for creativity and change such as the following:• Can reject prevailing values and norms• Can promote alternatives to dominant culture• Can act as force of change
The Development of Human Culture
Assimilation vs. Multiculturalism– Assimilation is the process by which different
cultures are absorbed into mainstream culture (melting pot)
– Multiculturalism calls for respecting cultural diversity and promoting equality of different cultures (salad bowl)
The Development of Human Culture
What Is Ethnocentrism?– Ethnocentrism is judging other cultures in
terms of one’s own standards• Sociologists try to avoid this
– Cultural relativism is judging a society by its own standards• Sociologists believe a culture must be studied in
terms of its own meanings and values
The Development of Human Culture
Cultural Universals– Common features of human behavior found in
all societies are called cultural universals, such as:• Language• Marriage• Prohibition against incest• Art• Dance• Joking• Hygiene
The Development of Human Culture
Language– Language is involved in virtually all our
activities– Means by which we organize what we do– Involved in ceremony, religion, poetry, etc.– Allows us to extend scope of thought and
experience
The Development of Human Culture
Language– Linguistic relativity hypothesis
• Language influences our perceptions of the world– Language gives permanence to a culture
• Outlives people• Develops a sense of history and cultural continuity• Helps shape identity
The Development of Human Culture
Speech and Writing– All societies use speech as vehicle of
language– Invention of writing marked major transition in
history– Speech is limited to the context in which
words were spoken, but text can endure for thousands of years
Table 3.1
Global Map 3.2
Premodern Societies
The Earliest Societies– Hunters and Gatherers
• For most of human existence we lived in small hunting and gathering societies
• Gained livelihood from hunting, fishing, gathering edible plants
• Focused on religious values and ritual activities, not material wealth
• Little inequality existed
Global Map 3.1 top
Global Map 3.1 middle
Global Map 3.1 bottom
Premodern Societies
Pastoral and Agrarian Societies– Pastoral societies relied mainly on
domesticated livestock• Some still exist in modern world; found in regions
not amenable to agriculture– Agrarian societies grew crops
• This more reliable food supply supported larger communities
• Because people did not move around as much, they developed larger stocks of material possessions
Table 3.2
Premodern Societies
Traditional Societies or Civilizations– Based on the development of cities– Large– Pronounced inequalities existed between
those with or without wealth and power– Ruled by kings or emperors– Developed writing, art, science– Many were empires
Societies in the Modern World
Industrialization– Industrialization:
• The emergence of machine production based on the use of inanimate power resources (such as steam, or electricity)
Table 3.3 top
Table 3.3 bottom
Societies in the Modern World
Industrialization– Industrialized (modern) societies differ in
several key respects from previous social order• Technological advances occur much faster• Majority employed in factories, offices, shops• Majority live in towns or cities• Political systems are more developed Nation-states: political communities with clear borders Government has large impact on citizens’ lives• Based on industrial production and generally free
enterprise
Societies in the Modern World
Global Development– Colonialism helped shape the social map of
the globe as we know it today• Societies that were not colonialized have become
industrialized First world (United States, Europe, Canada,
Australasia, South Africa, Japan)• Societies that were colonialized experienced much
a lower level of industrial development and are referred to as the developing world
Third world (majority in Asia, Africa, and South America)
Societies in the Modern World
The Developing World– Some countries never ruled by Europe are
still strongly influenced by colonial relationships
– Most nations in the developing world became independent states only since World War II only after bloody struggles
– Most are nation-states
Societies in the Modern World
The Developing World (cont)– Most people live in rural areas, but cities are
developing rapidly– Poverty, low life expectancy, lack of
education, malnutrition, and substandard housing exist
– Gender inequalities exist
Global Map 3.3
Fig. 3.1
The Effect of Globalization
Global Culture– Increased global communications and
economic interdependence represent more than the growth of world unity
– Forces that produce a global culture:• Television• Unified global economy• Global citizens• International organizations• Electronic communications
Global Map 3.4
The Effect of Globalization
Internet and Global Culture– Internet can promote a global culture or
strengthen nationalism and traditional cultural values• Time and distance reorganized, bringing us closer
together• But can also promote a rise of nationalism,
bringing ethnic conflict and ethnic pride
Review Questions
1. From a sociological perspective, culture can be defined as ________.
a) the material goods that a people creates to represent the ideologies and practices that they embrace and identify with
b) a tool kit of practices that are learned in a given society
c) a system of interrelationships that connects individuals
d) the values, norms, and material goods held or created by a given group
Review Questions
2. Sociologically speaking, a society can be defined as ________.
a) a network of subcultures that may cross regional or national borders
b) a group of people who live within the same nation-state
c) a group of people who share the same values, norms, and language
d) a system of interrelationships that connects individuals
Review Questions
3. Which of the following statements best captures sociologist Ann Swidler’s notion of culture as a “tool kit”?
a) Culture is a series of scripts on which people draw to construct their social interactions.
b) Culture is flexible and people participate in many different cultures by selecting different understandings and behaviors from their cultural took kit.
c) People use cultural tools—material goods, values, norms, language—to create a uniform reality in which they feel comfortable.
d) Depending on where people are born and how they are raised, they are given certain tools that influence how they value and interpret the world.
Review Questions
4. The nature versus nurture debate examines the importance of _____ in shaping human behavior.
a) biology and learning/culture
b) the natural environment and the social environment
c) physical and cognitive traits
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
Review Questions
5. According to the linguistic relativity hypothesis, how does language influence our perceptions of the world?
a) Language allows us to extend the scope of our thoughts and experiences and construct complex ideas about the world.
b) Language serves as a barrier between cultures; if we cannot communicate verbally with someone, we are more likely to view that person as unfriendly and view his way of doing things in a negative light.
c) As the world around us changes, language evolves which helps people embrace these changes.
d) We are more likely to be aware of things if we have words for them.
Review Questions
6. A nation-state can best be defined as ________.
a) a society characterized by an extremely rapid pace of technological innovation that brings about frequent and significant social and political changes
b) a political community with clearly marked borders in which a democratically elected government creates laws and allows for a pluralistic, open society
c) a society based on the development of cities, marked by significant inequalities of wealth and power, and most often ruled by an elite oligarchy
d) a political community with clearly marked borders in which a government creates laws that apply to all who live within the borders
Review Questions
7. How do developing countries today differ from traditional civilizations?
a) There is great inequality in developing countries today, while traditional societies had low levels of inequality.
b) Developing countries do not depend on agriculture as their main economic activity as traditional civilizations did.
c) Most developing countries are involved in trade with countries around the world; at best traditional civilizations interacted with bordering societies or civilizations .
d) Virtually all developing countries have free-market economies whereas traditional civilizations had centrally planned economies.