Chapter 3:

Physical Evidence

IntroductionIt would be impossible to list all the objects that could conceivably be of importance to a crime.

Almost anything can be Physical Evidence.

Although you cannot rely on a list of categories, it is useful to discuss some of the most common types of physical evidence.

The purpose of recognizing physical evidence is so that it can be ___________ and ____________.

The weight a given piece of evidence will have in a case will be decided by a jury.

Types of Physical EvidenceBlood, semen, and saliva

Documents

Drugs

Explosives

Fibers

Fingerprints

Firearms and ammunition

Glass

Hair

Impressions

Organs and physiological fluids

Paint

Petroleum products

Plastic bags

Plastic, rubber, and other polymers

Powder residues

Soil and minerals

Tool marks

Vehicle lights

Wood and other vegetative matter

Classification of Physical Evidence Biological Crime-Scene Evidence: includes blood, saliva, semen, DNA, hair, organs, and other physiological fluids

Manufactured Items of Crime-Scene Evidence: firearms, ammunition, fibers, paint, glass, petroleum, products, plastic bags, rubber, polymers, and vehicle headlights.

Classification of Physical Evidence

Impression Crime-Scene Evidence: includes tire markings, shoe prints, depressions in soft soils, all other forms of tracks, glove and other fabric impressions, tool marks, and bite marks

Purpose of Examining Physical Evidence

Physical Evidence is usually examined by a forensic scientist for _____________ or ______________

Identification : The process of determining a substance’s physical or chemical identity

Examples: identifying the chemical composition of illicit drugs, gasoline, the nature of an explosion, blood-human or animal?

The process of identification:

1. Testing procedures that give characteristic results for specific standard materials.

2. The number and type of tests needed to identify a substance be sufficient to exclude all other substances.

Purpose of Examining Physical Evidence

Comparison: Deciding whether two or more objects have a _____________________

Comparison Analysis: subjects a suspect specimen and a standard/reference specimen to the same tests and examinations for the ultimate purpose of determining whether or not they have a common origin.Examples:?

Process of comparison analysis: 1. Combinations of select properties are chosen from the

suspect and the standard/reference specimen for comparison.

2. Tests and examinations3. The forensic scientist makes a conclusion with respect to

the origins.

Role of ProbabilityProbability: is the frequency of occurrence of an event.

To comprehend the evidential value of a comparison, one must appreciate the role that probability has in ascertaining the origins of two or more specimens.

Just because a comparison analysis determines the specimens to be indistinguishable, it does not mean they 100% come from the same sourceSo, it can only be concluded that a probability is so high as to defy mathematical calculations or human comprehension

After classifying millions of fingerprints over the past hundred years, no two have ever been exactly alike!

The probability of two individuals having the same fingerprints is 1 out of 1 x 1060

Classifying Characteristics

Individual Characteristics: Properties of evidence that can be associated to _____________ with an extremely high degree of certainty (probability)

Examples: matching ridge characteristics of two fingerprints, the comparison of handwriting characteristics, the fitting together of irregular edges of broken objects (like puzzle pieces)

Class Characteristics- Properties of evidence associated only with a group and never a single source.

Class EvidenceWhat is the probability that a nylon fiber originated from a particular sweater, or that a paint chip came from a suspect car in a hit and run?

There are very few statistical data available from which to derive this information

In a mass-produced world, gathering this kind of data on class evidence is increasingly elusive.

One of the primary endeavors of forensic scientists must be to create and update statistical databases for evaluating the significance of class physical evidence.

Most items of physical evidence retrieved at crime scenes cannot be linked definitively to a single person or object.

The value of class physical evidence lies in its ability to provide corroboration of events with data that are, as nearly as possible, free of human error and bias.

Class EvidenceThe chances are low of encountering two indistinguishable items of physical evidence at a crime scene that actually originated from different sources.

When one is dealing with more than one type of class evidence, their collective presence may lead to an extremely high certainty that they originated from the same source. ****

Product rule

Finally, the contribution of physical evidence is ultimately determined in the courtroom.

Crossing OverCrossing over the line from class to individual does not end the discussions.

How many striations are necessary to individualize a mark to a single tool and no other?

How many color layers individualize a paint chip to a single car? How many ridge characteristics individualize a fingerprint?How many handwriting characteristics tie a person to a signature?

These are all questions that defy simple answers and are the basis of arguments.

Natural vs. Evidential Limits

There are practical limits to the properties and characteristics the forensic scientist can select for comparison.

Modern analytical techniques have become so sophisticated and sensitive that natural variations in objects become almost infinite.Carrying natural variations to the extreme, no two things in this world are alike in every detail. Evidential variations are not the same as natural variations.Distinguishing variations of evidential use from natural variations is not always an easy task.

Using Physical Evidence

As the number of objects linking an individual to a crime scene increases, the probability of involvement increases

A person may be exonerated or excluded from suspicion if physical evidence collected at a crime scene is found to be different from standard/reference samples collected from that subject.

Forensic Databases• The Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS)- a

national fingerprint and criminal history system maintained by the FBI.

• Used to compare fingerprints- a new one with one already in the system• If a fingerprint is found, the latent-print examiner creates a digital image of

the print. Next, the examiner, with the aid of a coder, marks points on the print to guide the computerized search. The print is then electronically submitted to IAFIS and within minutes the search is completed against all fingerprint images in IAFIS

• The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS)- enables federal, state, and local crime laboratories to electronically exchange and compare DNA profiles.

• Links crimes to each other and to convicted offenders

Forensic Databases

• The National Integrated Ballistics Information Network (NIBIN) - allows firearm analysts to acquire, digitize, and compare markings made by a firearm on bullets and cartridge casings.

• The International Forensic Automotive Paint Data Query (PDQ) -database contains chemical and color information pertaining to original automotive paints.

• SICAR (shoeprint image capture and retrieval) - a shoeprint database.

ReconstructionReconstruction: The method used to support a likely sequence of events, at a crime scene, by observing and evaluating physical evidence and statements made by those involved with the incident.

Crime-scene reconstruction relies on the ______________ of medical examiners, criminalists, and law enforcement personnel to recover physical evidence and to sort out the events surrounding the occurrence of a crime.

Examples: whether a body was moved after death, determining whether a victim was clothed after death, analyzing bullet trajectory, analyzing blood splatter, determining the direction from which projectiles penetrated glass objects, estimating the distance of a shooter from a target, etc.

The Role of Physical Evidence

The physical evidence left behind at a crime scene plays a crucial role in reconstructing the events that took place surrounding the crime.

Although the evidence alone does not describe everything that happened, it can support or contradict accounts given by witnesses and/or suspects.

Information obtained from physical evidence can also generate leads and confirm the reconstruction of a crime to a jury.

The collection and documentation of physical evidence is the foundation of a reconstruction.

Summing It Up

Reconstruction is a team effort that involves putting together many different pieces of a puzzle. The right connections have to be made among all the parts involved so as to portray the relationship among the victim, the suspect, and the crime scene. If successful, reconstruction can play a vital role in aiding a jury to arrive at an appropriate verdict.The recognition, collection, and analysis of physical evidence is the foundation to successful reconstruction, but only part of the process.

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