Chapter 3

VARIETIES OF NATURAL FIBRES

As metallic reinforcements and synthetic fibres are costly and not suitable for

sustainable development, there is a need for substitution by natural fibres to the extent

possible solely with treatment or by blending. India abounds in vegetable fibre sources

such as, sisal, sunn-hemp, ramie, banana stem, pineapple and screwpine leaves. Grasses

such as moonj and sabai also yield fibre. Extraction of fibre from plants and grasses and

manufacture of utility articles are traditional occupation in India. Available vegetable

fibres are mostly long and staple with considerable softness. The stiffness in the fibre is

due to the presence of gums, resins and pectins. These fibres are obtained from

leaves- (e.g. sisal, pineapple etc;)

barks- (e.g. jute, hemp, ramie, banana etc;)

husks of fruits- (e.g. coir, cocoa, arecanut etc;)

Of the entire plants- grasses, reeds, bamboo, etc and flowers- cotton etc. some are

fit for spinning and weaving after proper treatment. Some can be used for the wefts, some

for warps and some for both. Some fibres are not at all suitable for spinning but can be

woven into baskets and plaits.

A large number of fibres, particularly those found in the leaves and barks contain

certain amount of impurities which come in the way of spinning in unprocessed state. In

many cases, these impurities are part of the fibres in the form of wax, acid and gums.

Some of them can be separated easily but some are so closely bonded up that special and

prolonged treatment becomes essential to release them. The length of the fibre, crimp,

twist, tensile strength, elasticity and lustre are the main factors that decide the spinning

suitability of the fibres. The maturity of fibres and extraction processes determine these

factors to a great extent.

3.1 Leaf fibres

Leaf fibres are obtained from leaves of monocotyledonous plants. The fibres

occur in bundles. The position of fibres in the leaf is not uniform. The more important

among them are listed as

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3.1.1 Agave

Agave is a native of Mexico. The plants were later taken to Europe, Africa and

the Far East by the Spanish and the Portuguese. It was introduced in India during the

fifteenth century by the Portuguese and is now found all over the country. There are

about 275 species of agave. In India, some varieties of agave viz., sisalana, cantala,

veracruz are available. In common use, the word 'sisal' is popular. They are found mostly

along the railway embankments and roadsides. They are also cultivated on the hedges of

private fields to protect them from cattle and to prevent soil erosion. Of late, the forest

departments of state governments have taken up the cultivation of sisal on an extensive

basis.

3.1.2 Pineapple (Ananas cosmos)

The pineapple is a small genus, native to Brazil in tropical America. It was

introduced in India by middle of the sixteenth century. It has been acclimatized in Assam,

Bengal and along the west coast. Of about 90 varieties and sub-varieties, the Qinu and the

Kew are popular in India. It thrives best in places having mild and humid tropical climate

with annual rainfall of about 1250 mm spread over the year and a mean annual

temperature of 18° to 32°C. It is a perennial herb with short stem bearing a rosette of

leaves 60 cm to I m long; propagation is by suckers, stips and crowns. The suckers come

into bearing in 15 to 20 months while stips and crowns take 2 to 2 'l'2 years. Fibre can be

extracted from the leaves after they become about two year old and the fruits are

harvested either by retting method or by mechanical process viz. raspador.

3.1.3 Screwpines (Pandarus)

Screwpines are trees with large narrow spirally arranged leaves. They are found

mostly in tropics. An origin of Mauritius, screwpines was introduced in India during the

sixteenth century. The plants are abundantly grown in the southern states.

It is difficult to classify some fibres listed below as leaf or bast fibres. For e.g.

bast fibres are generally soft.

3.1.4 Banana and plantain

Several varieties of banana are cultivated in the country. The plant grows up to a

height of 4 m. The plants are cut down as soon as fruits are harvested for extraction of

24

fibre. Both stems and the ribs of the leaves contain a very good quality fibre of

considerable length. Millions of stems, which are now left, to rot can be converted into

fibre and then into high utility articles such as saree cloth, paper, cordage etc. It is

reported that firms in Alleppey have started manufacturing of banana fibre fabrics besides

coir for export.

3.2 Grasses

Th~ grasses contain fibres. The extraction of fibres from grasses is not common.

They are twisted into twines, strings and ropes in their dry or semi-wet conditions.

3.2.1 Moonj (Saccharum cillare)

A tall grass about 3m in height grows in many parts of Punjab, U.P, Rajasthan,

M.P., Bihar and A.P. The extraction is possible by moistening and mallening. It is

extensively used in the manufacture of ropes, strings, mats, baskets and paper. Mattings

made from moonj are found to be resistant against termites. The stem is used for covering

carts. It is also used for manufacture of chairs (locally known as murha), tables, baskets

and screens as also covering for roof and storing purposes.

3.2.2 Sabai grass (Eulaliopsis bineta)

It is a perennial tufted grass with 0.60 to 2m length with erect, slender culms. This

is found all over India, but is abundant on dry, bare slopes and forest banks of Sub­

Himalayan track growing uncultivated. Sabai grass is second only to bamboo in

importance as a raw material for paper manufacture.

3.2.3 Paddy grass

The straw, which remains after the paddy is threshed out, is an important cattle

feed. Only in few places, it is used for thatching cottages. Of late, it is being used for

packing bottles. But in Japan, ropes, bags, floor mats, baskets etc. are manufactured with

this grass. Straw mats and bags of paddy grass are used as substitutes for making sacks

and gunny bags in Japan.

3.2.4 Kora grass

About 60 species of this genus are available in India and five are important from

the fibre extraction point of view, especially for mat making. COf)mbosus or kora grass is

the most important grass in the mat industry. Golamethi, Mudarkati Mutha, Godu,

25

Thunga and Kadu are the other Indian names. It is a glabrous, robust sedge with 0.60 to

1.5 m height arising from a creeping woody rhizome. It is cultivated mostly in Tamil

Nadu and West Bengal. It is propagated by suckers or strips with bulbs containing short

lengths of culms. The value of the product depends on the quality and length of the

culms. The finest strands are used for exceptionally fine mats. The grass is to be soaked

in water mixed with bentonite clay for an hour, prior to weaving.

3.2.5 Elephant grass

Kno.wn botanically as Pennisstum Purpurem, this is a tall erect stout perennial

plant, which looks like a miniature bamboo plant. It is abundant in areas with an annual

rainfall of not less than 1000 mm. It grows to about 2.5 m in height and has a diameter of

20 mm at its base. The colour of the stem is pale or dark purple. It is usually found as

bushes rather than as a single plant and mostly along the sandy banks of streams or water

courses. The fibres close to the periphery of the stem are strong and closely spaced. The

distance between nodes range between 80 and 200 mm and this places a restriction on the

length of the fibre.

The fibres can be extracted mechanically between grooved and knurled headed

rollers in a roller crusher specially designed for this purpose. It was found that the

extraction would be very efficient if the grass is of diameter I to 2 cm. Further the

separation of the inner soft 'sap' fibre becomes difficult, i.f the grass is rolled in green

condition. If the grass is very dry, less separation and greater crushing, resulting in short

length large diameter fibres were found to occur.

3.2.6 Water reed

This plant is very similar to elephant grass in growth and size. But the stem is

hollow in the interior and the crest is fibrous and has a thickness of about 5 mm. This

hollow stem distinguishes it from elephant grass. The fibre can be extracted from mature

dry stems by hand cobbing and separation.

3.2.7 Bamboo

It belongs to the order of grasses. There are about 136 species in India. They

thrive best in monsoon. They differ widely in stature and fonn; some are as tall as 40 m

and some are only shrubs. Most of them are erect. They are usually hollow, round and

smooth. A few are solid also. They are known as male bamboos. They consist of fibre

26

bundles. The fibres are woody and brittle. It is very difficult to separate individual fibres.

These cannot be spun. It is used as a substitute for timber. Numerous articles of daily use

are made out of it viz., yoke, axles, tools, handles, fans, umbrellas, baskets, boxes and

furniture. It is also a good raw material for paper making.

3.2.8 Palm fibres

Palm has been called the 'Princess' of botanical kingdom. Palms contain about

270 genera with about 1,500 species. All are available in tropical regions. The coconut

palm (coco's nucifera), palmyra or bassine (borassus flabellifera), date palm (phoneix

sylvestris), sago palm (caryota urens), talipot (corypha umbraculifera) and canes

(calamus) are a few varieties of palm, which are exploited for the purpose of fibre

extraction.

3.2.9 Talipot palm

This is an erect handsome palm with tall stout trunk growing up to 30 m high and

0.5 to I m in diameter. It bears crown of large fan shaped leaves with stout petioles about

1.5 to 3 m long. The leaves are of one-sided umbrella type having opening from 2 to 5 m.

This palm flowers once in its lifetime in a span of 30 to 40 years. They grow wild. Fibres,

which can be extracted from the stalks, are found commercially useful. The trees are not

exploited for the purpose. The fibre is extracted by retting the stalks into 0.6 to 1 m long

pieces, soaking in water, pounding, them with a mallet and drying. The resulting thread

like tissues- fibres are used for making mats, wall hangings, purses, bags and other useful

articles in different colours and designs.

3.2.10 Kenaf

It is popularly known as Ambadi or Patsan. It is cultivated in India from pre­

historic times as a supplementary crop. It occupies an important place in dry tracts of

Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Bihar. In other areas, it is cultivated on a limited

scale. It thrives well in humid climate within a temperature range of 15° to 25° C. It

becomes ready for harvesting in 3 to 5 months. If harvested at the flowering stage, good

quality fibres can be obtained. The plants are cut close to ground or even pulled out, tied

into bundles of 30 to 40 stalks, let on the field for a few days to dry and then steeped in

water for retting. The period of retting varies from 6 to 10 days depending on the

maturity of stalks. The extraction of fibres can be done by using a mechanical

27

decorticator. It is used in the manufacture of fishing nets, tying rafters, coarse canvas,

sacks and floor mattings. It can also be used for paper making.

3.3.11 Hemp

Hemp fibre is obtained from plant - cananabinus sativa. In India it is grown for

the narcotics bhang, ganja and charas under a government licence. The plant is

considered to be a native of Western and Central Asia, but it is naturalised in northern

parts of India viz; Himachail Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West

Bengal. The stalks after cutting are laid to dry for a week or so. Then they are steeped in

water for 15 days and beaten with mallets. It is possible to obtain superior quality fibre. It

should be dried in the sun thereafter and further beaten to obtain soft fibres. The fibre is

used for the manufacture of sackcloth, bags, ropes, etc.

3.2.12 Flax (Linseed)

These plants are grown for both fibre and seeds. The seeds yield linseed oil. The

varieties grown for fibres have straight, slender, pale green stalks. They are planted so

closely that they branch out only at the top. They grow to a height of 1 to 1.5 m, 4 to

12 mm in diameter. These plants are called fibre flax. The fibre flax when properly

processed is creamy white in colour varying with the skill and quality of retting. It is

highly lustrous. This is due to the wax it contains. The wax imparts better spinning

properties. The fibre is quite strong. It is absorbent. It resists the effects of mild-dew and

moisture. It takes all dyes readily. Flax is also called linen.

3.2.13 Sunn - hemp

It is a shrub, which grows to 3 m in height. The crop is annual. It is one of the

common cultivated crops for fibre or for green manure. It is also a good fodder crop. The

plant is indigenous to India. About 99 per cent of the world production of sunn - hemp is

in India and Bangladesh. It is cultivated throughout India. Uttar Pradesh accounts for 40

percent, Madhya Pradesh 10 percent and Andra pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka

share the remaining percentage of total acreage in the country. The plant grows to a

height of 3 m with 6 to 12 mm stalks in diameter. The plants are pulled out or cut close to

the ground tied into bundles and laid down to ground for 2-3 days for the leaves to drop

off. Retting is done similar to that in the case of jute. The duration of retting depends on

the temperature of water and the stage during which the plants are harvested.

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The yield of fibre is about 80 percent of the dry stem. The quality of fibre is

judged by length, fitness, colour, uniformity etc. The fibre is light in colour, possesses

greater tensile strength and is more durable under exposure than jute. Hence it is more

popular than jute and gets higher price in foreign markets. Sunn is resistant to sea water

and really a cordage fibre, is used for fishing nets, cot- stringing, mattings, coarse canvas

bags etc. It is well suited for the manufacture of wrapping paper.

3.2.14 Ramie

It is' a perennial shrub 1 to 2 m high with straight slender stalks of 6 to 12 nun

diameter. It grows best in a warm, moist climate, on an elevation of 12,00 to 15,00 m.

The propagation is usually by means of stem cuttings. Plants can also be raised either

from seeds or from roots (rhizomes). If properly cultivated, no replanting is necessary for

6 to 15 years. It takes about 10 months for the stems to mature after the first planting. For

better fibre, the stems are to be cut before they mature and begin to flower. Retting

method is employed for extraction of fibre. Fibres occur in the form of bundles with the

ends overlapping so as to produce continuous filament throughout the length of stalk.

They are held to each other by gums, waxes and pectins. After retting or decorticating the

stems, degumming process is necessary to make the fibres free from gums, waxes and

pectins. It resists the effects of bacteria and fungi. It is resistant to moisture and does not

change its colour when exposed to sun. The fibre is used to. make fishing nets, industrial

sewing thread, packing canvas, fire hose, filter cloth and upholstery fabric. The gas

mantles are also made out of it. It is a good substitute for cotton and sunn-hemp and a

raw material for papermaking. It therefore deserves consideration for cultivation and

exploitation on scientific lines.

3.2.15 Bagasse

Bagasse, the residue from sugar cane was originally tried for boards, but not

found to be very successful as reinforcement in cement sheets due to the poor alkaline

resistance. But bagasse reinforced phenolic composite sheets function satisfactorily. The

cost of these are however prohibitive.

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3.3 Jute

Among the natural fibres used for industry, jute and coir are the most important

fibres grown extensively in India and has many applications in civil engineering. Jute is

called the "Golden Fibre". This lustrous and tough fibre has now been brought into the

limelight in the form of new generation products. The first jute mill was established in

1855 in Bengal. It is a bast fibre obtained from the stacks of plants of the genus of

corchorus of tiliaceal family. The stacks range in height from 2 to 3 m and of diameter 12

to 18 mm. The plants can be harvested in about 120 days. Originally used for jute cloths,

geojute has now come to be used as a soil saver for erosion control and moisture

retention. The Indian Jute Industries Research Association founded in 1966 is

contributing to the development of the use of jute. The ability of jute to absorb water is a

unique property, which contributes to erosion control and moisture retention. It is very

light and highly drapable over the contours of land. Bituminised jute has been used

successfully as early as 1920 for road strengthening. Some of the major applications are,

river bank protection on Padma at Hasanpur, and Hooghly River at Barrackpur both in

West Bengal.

Jute is used both as woven and nonwoven products particularly for short term

applications of consolidation of subsoil. Jute drains are preferred for this (Chattopadhyay

and Chatterjee, 1996).

3.4 Processing of fibres

Natural fibres have to be processed to enable them to be made into geotextile for

civil engineering applications. These processes are different from those for geosynthetics

and also vary from one natural fibre to another. The following section describes the

sequence of operations mainly for jute and coir, the most common fibres, which hold

promise for geotextile applications.

3.4.1 Jute fibres

Sequence of processing:

Prior to 1960, rove spinning system was in practice and the sequence of jute

processing was as follows:

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softener/spreader breaker card finisher card first drawing (push bar) second

drawing (push bar) roving spInning

Etwisting

warp winding

weft winding

beaming weaving J. - s ewiing (Khatua and Neogi, 1998)

weavmg

From 60s, sliver spinning system was introduced discarding the roving operation

and the system of drawing with screw gill came into operation in place of the old method

of drawing with push bar. The modified sequence of processing therefore, became

softener/spreader breaker card finisher card first drawing (screw gill) second

drawing (screw gill) third drawing (screw gill) spInning

Etwisting

warp winding

weft winding

beaming weaVing] .- sewIng

weaving

One of the outlets for jute which is gaining importance is its blending with cotton.

3.4.2 Selection of appropriate processing sequence for jute/cotton blends

Jute has its own spinning system, which differs, substantially from cotton system

in its technological details. Cotton spinning system would be appropriate only if jute

fibres have a fairly uniform length, generally not exceeding 65 mm. So for processing

jute fibres on cotton system, jute fibres are cut to appropriate length.

Work carried out to produced jute/cotton blended yams on rotor spinning showed

that there was preferential falling of jute in large quantities during processing especially

at licker-in zone (Figure 3.1) during carding and at opening roller region during rotor

spinning. However, the causes and hence the remedial measures have not been reported

in the published literature. So it became a major research to avoid PF of jute during

processing not only to maintain desired blend composition but also to reduce loss of good

jute fibres and avoid reprocessing of these fibres.

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WN

Lickerin cover

40/60 Jute/Cotton lapFeed plate

SF Short fibresLT Lighter trashlIT Heavier trashJF Jute fibres

Figure 3.1: Jute falling at licker-in zone during carding

Back plate

The observations showed that the two places i.e. licker-in zone of carding and

)pening roller region at rotor spinning had two common features. Other types of

nachines need not have similar features:

(i) saw tooth type of beater (ii) sharp leading edge

To confirm whether these two features are the major reasons for PF of jute, the

material was processed on shirley type beater in blow-room and shirley trash analyzer,

which also have the above two features. Falling of substantial quantity of jute, confirmed

that, these' two features along with the coarseness and stiffness of jute fibres, are

responsible for preferential falling of jute. Further studies showed that (i) the lower the

jute content, the better the spinning performance and (ii) the coarser the count, the less

the end-breakage rate at rotor spinning. It was also found that (i) with the given blend

composition, the larger the rotor diameter, the better the spinning performance and (ii)

higher the jute content in the blend, the larger the diameter required for satisfactory

spinning performance.

The yam spun from tail fibre shows higher yam tenacity, better regularity and

improved performance. Ability of jute to absorb water is a unique property, which

contributes to its erosion control capability. Its high degree of drapability, i.e., ability to

maintain intimate contact with soil, makes it highly flexible compared to other alternative

fibres. Further, comparatively very low cost and easy availability of geojute along with

its eco-friendliness, make it an ideal material for use in case of filtration, separation,

drainage and erosion (Chattopadhyay et aI., 1998). A large number of geotextiles has

been developed by the Indian Jute Industry Research Association for different

engineering purposes (Datta et. aI., 1997). Geojutes have been applied very successfully

in many bank protection works on rivers and canals and safeguard banks from erosion

due to flowing water and wave actions.

3.4.3 Coir

There are four methods of extraction of coir fibres from the husk.

Retting

Crushing

Scraping

Hackling or combing

Of these, retting is the age old practice adopted in Kerala as it is cheap, but has an

33

adverse environmental impact.

Water retting:

Water retting consists of soaking or immersing the vegetable matter in the tanks,

pits, ponds, streams of slow moving water or in stagnant water. Bacterial action begins

within 24 hours of the immersion. It hydrolyses the gummy and resinous matter. The

micro- organism responsible for the action can act only in the water. The fibres in the

tender vegetable stage ret more easily than in an advanced stage. A higher temperature of

the water a9celerates the pace. In stagnant water, retting proceeds briskly for the simple

reason that as the hydrolysis proceeds, the temperature of the water rises. The water in

which retting has been done once, speeds up the retting of a fresh stock since the bacteria

once released is available for immediate action. This is not so in the case of the flowing

waters. The hydrolyzed matter is washed away by the new water replacing the old one.

Hence retting takes a longer time. But retting in the flowing water is of great advantage

as the fibres get a great lustre with white colour, called white fibre and hence fetch higher

price in the market. Those retted in stagnant water become coloured and dull in

appearance.

Over- retting destroys the strength of the fibres. It is therefore, necessary to be

very careful about retting operation and the fibres should be removed as soon as retting is

complete. Otherwise, the bacteria attack the fibres. Under- retting too has its own

disadvantages. It makes the fibres .coarse and harsh. The main objective of the retting is

to remove unwanted foreign and unuseful material. In some parts of the European

countries, the retting in natural ponds takes place. Natural ponds are replaced by

artificially constructed tanks of cement and concrete having covers. The temperature of

the water is maintained at 35° C. An outlet releases the acid water gently into another

tank. This water contains some bacteria, which become available for a fresh stock. The

process is costly but has the advantage in that the retting can be controlled.

Dew retting:

In dew retting, the fibres are evenly spread over grassy land. Due to the climatic

condition, the bacteria and moulds release the enzymes, which convert the gummy

substance into soluble material that may be washed away by dew or rain. This method

produces brownish or greenish fibres. Dew retting is practiced mostly in the case of flax.

In hot climate, putrification starts early and hence if possible, water and dew retting

34

should be avoided, particularly when the fibre is weak (viz, pineapple). But when the

retting is perfect, the product becomes soft, lustrous and fit for spinning.

Crushing:

A common or proper mode of cleaning certain varieties of vegetable matter from

the fibres is to crush the fibres between the rollers moving in opposite directions. To

begin with, the material is simply fed into rollers. When a degree of sap is removed from

them, they are twisted and subjected to the pressure of the rollers. It is further scraped by

blunt knife·for removal of the pulp etc. The fibres thus obtained are soaked in the water

for an hour or two, cleaned and then hung up to dry in shade. Drying under the sun

discolours the fibres. This process is followed in the case of sisal, agave and aloe fibres

also. This is called brown fibre.

Scraping or decortication:

This operation involves the scraping of the bark, rim or outer coat of the plant.

For this purpose, decorticators or raspadors are employed. This process is adopted for the

recovery of coir, sisal and other leaf fibres, viz. pineapple, as they do not contain woody

parts or bark. Gums and resins do remain in certain quantities after decortication.

Degumming is done by a chemical process, which is necessary before spinning. The

remaining gums, waxes and resins render the fibres brittle and cause entanglement of the

fibres with one another. Bacteria attack them easily. Hackling or combing operation is

not much in use because of many disadvantages.

Cleaning and spinning of fibres:

Various types of tools and equipment are used for different purposes. They are

simple hand tools and few power - operated machines.

The cleaning of retted fibres particularly from sisal, pineapple leaves and banana

stems is carried out by rapsador machine. The raspador machine consists of drum (35cm

diameter), the carbon steel angle blades fitted on the periphery of the drum and an

adjustable roller with scraping plate in front of the drum. The shaft carrying the drum is

fitted with ball bearings mounted on the framework. The drum rotates (700- 800 rpm)

with the help of an electric motor or an oil engine. The tip end of the leaf is inserted

between the adjustable rollers and the rotating drum to the extent of three fourth of the

leaf and then drawn back. The other end of the leaf is inserted into the machine by

holding the cleaned portion of leaf. Then the leaf is drawn back. This process produces

35

clean fibre. The roller and the drum is to be adjusted in such a way that the clean fibres

are obtained. The fibre is further cleaned in water and then allowed to dry. It requires

some skill for which practice is necessary.

Carding machine:

After extraction of fibre, the fibre strands are separated for further processing. For

this purpose the hand carders are used in the villages. A hand carder is a block of wood

on which the nails are set with pointed ends upwards. The fibres are brushed over these

nails. Fibre filaments are then separated and the pithy portion in fibres is removed.

Single ply machine:

Fibre filaments are twisted into plies by palms or by takli charkhas like batara

charkha or single ply machines known for their efficiency. The machine is used for

plying coarse as well as fine yam. It consists of a flyer and drying wheel, operated by

paddle as well as power. The flyer along with bobin is mounted on \vooden/metal

framework. Some length of yarn is wound on the bobin and one end is taken out through

a slide provided to the arm of the flyer. The combed carded fibre slightly moistened is fed

as soon as the flyer is set in motion. This operation gets the fibre filaments twisted into

yarn and wound on the bobin.

Ban making machine:

It is known as Japanese type 2- ply rope making machine. It consists of cast iron

case with twisters. Gear wheels and rope eyes are fitted on the wooden framework. 1\ext

to rope eye, a twisting wheel is fitted. A pair of drawing rotters is adjacent to the counter

twisters. The rear drum, fitted on the frame wheel is bolted to a flywheel. The flywheel is

connected to the main shaft to which the paddle is connected. Hard fibres and long staple

fibres like, moonj, bhabar, sisal, pineapple etc., are converted into two ply yarn. This can

be operated with paddle or power.

Coir spinning wheel:

The spinning wheel for banana, sisal and coir fibre consists of a stationary

spinning wheel having two to four spindles. The spindles are fitted on the arms of the

frame or on an arc made of iron. Each of these spindles is provided with a pulley at the

centre. A driving rope is passed round the pulley and over the flywheel mounted on the

shaft with handle. Another movable wheel carries one spindle. The workers feed fibre

36

walking backwards and a worker turns the handle of stationary wheel till the other worker

reaches the required distance. When the required length is reached, two of the plies are

put together into the notch of the movable wheel opposite the stationary one. These two

plies are guarded by a yarn guide and the movable wheel is turned. The rope is thus

ready.

Rope making machine:

This machine has five or more hooks fixed to pinion wheels, which are geared by

a gear wheel. The gear wheel is connected to a handle. For sturdiness, this assembly is

fitted on angle iron frames. There are two parts - a stationary machine and a hook or a

machine mounted on trolley. The fibre laps are converted directly into ropes. But for

strong cordage of ropes, it is desirable to use a number of twine yams already spun on

single ply machine. These yarns are further twisted into three or more equal parts. One

end of these yams is tied individually to the hooks of the stationary assembly (machine)

and the other ends of all strands to the opposite hook or to the trolley with hooks. Then

the rope guide is passed through the strands. The individual strands are given the required

twist by rotating the moving assembly. When sufficient twist is given to the strands, the

machine (hook) on the trolley is rotated in the opposite direction moving the rope guide

towards the stationary assembly till the rope guide reaches the assembly. The stationary

~ssembly is continued to be turned into its original di~ection. When the rope guide

reaches the stationary assembly, all the strands are removed from the stationary machine

(assembly) and a knot is given. Now the rope is ready which forms the basis for woven

37