Chapter 30 Striving for Independence

India: Early 20th century

• 1900-1941, India’s population increased dramatically

• Environmental pressure, deforestation-declining farm land

• Society divided into classes: peasants, wealthy property owners, urban craftspeople, traders, workers

• Many languages; English common medium of communication of Western-educated middle class

• Majority practiced Hinduism• Muslims about one-quarter of

population-majority in northwest & in eastern Bengal

British Rule & Indian Nationalism• Colonial India ruled by viceroy &

administered by Indian Civil Service• Technology mitigated dangers of

industrialization– suppressed development of radical

politics– maximized benefit to Britain & Civil

Service• At turn of century, most Indians

accepted British rule, but racism & discrimination inspired Hindus to establish Indian National Congress -1885

• Muslims, fearful of Hindu dominance & encouraged by Britain founded All-India Muslim League in 1906

• Two independence movements

British Rule & Indian Nationalism

• British resisted India’s efforts to industrialize

• India’s first steel mill established in 1911

• symbol of national pride• 1918-1919, tensions

increased between Brits & Indians

• Vague promises of self-government

• Turning Point-Amritsar Massacre

• British general ordered troops to fire into a crowd of 10,000 demonstrators

Mahatma Gandhi & Militant Nonviolence

• English educated lawyer-practiced in South Africa

• Returned to India & joined Indian National Congress

• Political ideas included ahimsa (nonviolence) & satyagraha (search for truth)

• Moved political efforts from elite to masses

India Moves Toward Independence

• In 1920s, Indians controlled education, economy, & public works

• Business people looked to Gandhi’s successor Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964)—for leadership

• World War II divided the Indian people

• Indians contributed heavily to war effort,

• Indian National Congress opposed war

• Minority joined Japanese side

Partition & Independence• In 1940, Muslim League’s leader

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, demanded country for Muslims

• After World War II, Britain’s new Labour Party government prepared for independence

• Plan was rushed through before full compromise reached

• Mutual animosity between Indian National Congress & Muslim League led to partition of India into two states: India & Pakistan

• Violence & massive disruption followed as Hindus left predominantly Muslim areas & Muslims left predominantly Hindu areas

• Hundreds of thousands died

Sub-Saharan Africa, 1900–1945Colonial Africa: Economic & Social Changes

• Outside Algeria, Kenya, & South Africa, few Europeans lived in Africa

• Africa exported raw materials-few Africans benefitted

• Africans forced to work in European-owned mines & plantations under harsh conditions for little or no pay

• Colonialism provided little modern health care

• Colonial policies worsened public health, undermined African family, & gave rise to large cities & racial discrimination.

Religious & Political Changes

• During colonial era, many Africans turned to Christianity or Islam

• Missionaries introduced Christianity (except in Ethiopia, where it was indigenous)

• Islam spread through influence & example of African traders

• Contrast between liberal ideas imparted by Western education & realities of racial discrimination contributed to rise of nationalism

Background to Revolution: Mexico in 1910

• Independence-1821- Mexican society deeply divided-few wealthy families-majority poor peasants

• Concentration of land ownership increased after independence

• In 1910, General Porfirio Diaz ruled for 34 years

• Mexico City modernized showplace

• brought wealth to few businessmen

• discrimination against nonwhite majority

• average Mexican’s standard of living declined

Revolution/Civil War in Mexico, 1911–1920

• Mexican Revolution haphazard social revolution

• Leaders represented different segments of society

• Madero overthrew Diaz in 1911, then he was overthrown by Huerta in 1913

• Constitutionalists Carranza & Obregon led disaffected middle class & industrial workers

• Organized armies that overthrew Huerta in 1914

Mexican Revolution

• Emiliano Zapata led peasant revolt

• Pancho Villa organized army in northern Mexico

• Neither able to lead national revolution

• Zapata defeated & killed by Constitutionalists -1919

• Villa assassinated in 1923

Revolution/Civil War in Mexico, 1911–1920

• Constitutionalists took over Mexico after years of fighting, 2 million casualties, & tremendous damage

• Adopted agrarian reforms – proposed social programs that appealed to workers & middle class

• Mexican Revolution lost momentum in 1920s• In 1928, National Revolutionary Party founded• Cardenas, removed generals from government,

redistributed land, replaced church-run schools with government schools, & expropriated foreign-owned oil companies

• When Cardenas’s term ended in 1940, Mexico still land of poor farmers-small industrial base

• Mexican Revolution established stable political system, tamed military & Catholic Church, & laid foundations for later industrialization of Mexico

• Revolution sparked new creativity in arts

Transformation of Argentina• At end of 19th century,

railroads & refrigerators allowed Argentina to become major exporter of meat

• Pampas transformed into great producer of meat & wheat

• Government represented interests of oligarquia, small group of wealthy landowners

• Only cared about farming• Foreign companies built

railroads, processing plants & public utilities

• Exported agricultural goods• Imported manufactured goods

Brazil & Argentina, to 1929• Brazil’s elite coffee & cacao planters & rubber

exporters resembled Argentine elite– used wealth to support lavish lifestyle– allowed British to build railroads, harbors– imported all manufactured goods

• Both Argentina & Brazil had small but outspoken middle classes-demanded share in government-looked to Europe as model

• Disruption of European industry & world trade in World War I weakened land-owning classes in Argentina & Brazil

• Urban middle class & wealthy landowners shared power at expense of landless peasants & urban workers

• During 1920s, peace & high prices for agricultural exports allowed both Argentina & Brazil to industrialize

• introduction of new technologies left them dependent on advanced industrial countries

• Aviation & radio communications introduced during 1920s, but European & U.S. companies dominated both sectors

The Depression & Vargas Regime in Brazil• Depression hit Latin America very hard-

significant turning point for region• As value of exports plummeted &

economies collapsed, Argentina & Brazil, turned to authoritarian regimes

• In Brazil, Vargas staged a coup & followed a policy that increased import duties & promoted national firms & state-owned enterprises

• Industrialization brought usual environmental consequences: mines, urbanization, slums, conversion of scrubland to pasture, & deforestation

• Vargas instituted reforms that benefited urban workers-did nothing to help landless peasants

• Economic recovery unequally distributed• In 1938, Vargas staged a second coup,

abolished constitution, made Brazil a fascist state & created precedence of political violence

• Overthrown in military coup in 1954

Argentina After 1930• Depression hurt Argentina-political

consequences delayed for years• In 1930, General Jose Uriburu

overthrew popularly elected president & initiated thirteen years of rule by generals & oligarquia

• In 1943, Colonel Juan Peron led another coup-modeled government on Germany’s Nazi regime

• As World War II turned against Nazis, Peron & his wife Eva Duarte Peron appealed to urban workers

• Created new base of support-allowed Peron to win presidency & established populist dictatorship

• Sponsored rapid industrialization-spent lavishly on social welfare projects

• Peron unable to create stable government-after his wife died in 1952-overthrown in military coup

ConclusionPolitics & Economics under Imperialism

• Peoples of sub-Saharan Africa & India remained under colonial rule after war

• Elites worked toward independence-ordinary people wanted social justice

• Though politically independent, Mexico, Argentina, & Brazil economically tied to industrializing nations

• Argentina & Brazil moved toward economic independence but fell victim to social unrest, militarism & dictatorship in the process

Conclusion:The Problems of Independence

• India gained independence from colonial rule, but was torn apart by ethnic conflict

• Desire for independence did not always unite people against colonial rulers because of social, ethnic, & religious divisions within their populations