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Chapter 39

The End of Empire

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Decolonization in Asia

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India

The Jewel of the Crown Legacy of British colonialism

Deep division between Hindus, Muslims Role of Mohandas Ghandi

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“Vivisection” of India (Ghandi) Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Muslim League Jawaharlal Nehru, Congress Party 1947 partition

500,000 killed 10 million refugees

India moves toward nonalignment position The “third path”

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Muslims leave India, 1947

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Nationalist Struggles in Vietnam French reassert control after WW II Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969), Communist leader

mounts guerilla war, defeats France in 1954 Vietnam divided at 17th parallel Civil war between north (Communist) and south President Lyndon Johnson (1908-1973) begins

increasing US involvement

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Vietnamese Protest French Occupation

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The Issue of Palestine

After World War II, Arab states increasingly gain independence

Palestine ruled by Great Britain between the wars Proclaims support for Jewish “homeland” in

Palestine (Balfour Declaration, 1917) Growing Jewish immigration from Europe from

1880s Arab protests in 1920s and 1930s

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Demonstration against the Balfour Declaration

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Creation of the State of Israel Jewish, Arab pressure drives British to hand

Palestine over to United Nations for a resolution Partition Plan of 1947 divides Palestine into seven

regions: 3 Jewish, 3 Arab, Jerusalem internationalized

May 1948 Jews declare independence of State of Israel

Arab states invade, Israel successfully defends itself

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The Six-Day War (June 1967)

Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt, 1918-1970) takes leadership position in Arab world

Attempts to block Suez traffic, conflict with Israel Threatens invasion of Israel in 1967, Israel

launches hugely successful pre-emptive strike Conquers and annexes East Jerusalem, Golan Heights Conquers Sinai Desert, returned to Egypt after peace

treaty signed Conquers Gaza Strip and West Bank, status unresolved

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The Arab-Israeli conflict, 1949-1982

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Decolonization in Africa (date is year of independence)

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Decolonization in Africa

19th century “scramble for Africa” Legacy of colonial competition Internal divisions

Tribal Ethnic Linguistic religious

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France and North Africa

Abandonment of most territories 1956 Morocco and Tunisia gain independence, 13 other colonies

in 1960 But determination to retain Algeria

Longer period of French colonization 2 million French citizens born or settled in Algeria by WW II

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Algerian War of Liberation

1954 Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) begins guerilla warfare against France Simmering conflict since French massacre in Sétif, 1945

500,000 French soldiers in war by 1958 War ends with Algerian independence in 1962 Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (1961),

manifesto against colonial rule

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Négritude: “Blackness”

Influence of “black is beautiful” from USA Revolt against white colonial values,

reaffirmation of African civilization Connection with socialism, Communism Geopolitical implications

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Post-Independence Difficulties Pax Romana of European colonists Civil wars in Rwanda, Burundi, Angola Economic hardship Instability of democratic regimes

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Afrocentrism

Kwame Nkrumah, leader of Ghana Celebrated visit of Queen Elizabeth II in 1961,

affirmation of Ghanese independence and equality

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In 1949, the Convention People's Party (CPP), led by Nkrumah organized workers and farmers for the first time in a mass movement for independent and staged strikes.  A new constitution was introduced by Nkrumah's government to

provide direct election by universal suffrage in 1954. But his government was opposed by the National Liberation Movement (NLM), led by Kofi Busia and

based on the Asante region.  NLM criticized CPP for its limitation on the powers of chiefs.  As a result of this, the NLM pushed for the establishment of a federal state with regional governments, while CPP advocated a unitary state.  Another constitution was approved on April 29, 1954, establishing a cabinet comprised of African ministers that were drawn from an all-African legislature chosen by

direct election.  In the election, CPP won the majority of seat in the new legislative assembly (Republic of Ghana, 4).

    Prime Minister Nkrumah's Gold Coast government issued a white paper containing proposals for Gold Coast independence in May 1956.  The British government agreed to a firm date for independence when a majority of British Togoland residents voted for unification with an independent Gold Coast.  On

March 6, 1957, the state of Ghana, named after the medieval West African empire, became an independent country within the Commonwealth of Nations.

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Kwame Nkrumah leading Independence Celebrations

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Kenya

Kikuyu ethnic group begins attacks on British and “collaborationist” Africans, 1947

1952 state of emergency declared Overwhelming British military response, 12,000 Africans

killed vs. 100 Europeans Bloody, but negotiated withdrawal, independence 1962

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Tarnishing of Independence

Decline of democratic regimes, rise of dictatorships

Partial reflection of artificial European boundaries Political immaturity of colonies

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Communism and Democracy in China Massive, pervasive policies of economic and

cultural engineering Great Leap Forward (1958-1961)

Great step backward Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)

Targeted intellectuals, teachers, professionals, managers, and anyone associated with western ideals

Both huge failures

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Mao died in 1976 Deng Xiaopeng (1904-1997) comes to power in

1981, moderates Maoism Tiananmen Square pro-democracy rallies

nevertheless subdued, 1989

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Indian Democracy

Indian democracy flourishes under Indira Ghandi (1917-1984) Daughter of Nehru, no relationship to Mohandas “Green Revolution” increases agricultural yields Repressive policies to slow population growth,

including forced sterilization Assassinated by Sikh bodyguards after attack on

Sikh extremists in Amritsar, 1984

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Muslim Revival and Arab Disunity Cold war splits Arab-Muslim world Israel defeats Egypt and Syria in 1973 Yom

Kippur war Attacked on Jewish holy day

Anwar Sadat (Egypt, 1918-1981) negotiates peace treaty with Israel Assassinated 1981 by Muslim extremists

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Movements toward Peace in the Middle East Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin (1922-1995)

signs peace accord with Palestinian Liberation Organization chairman Yasser Arafat (1929-2004) Yitzhak Rabin assassinated by Jewish extremist

Creation of Palestine Authority in West Bank and Gaza

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Islamism

Muslims increasingly regard America in negative terms, move towards radicalism

Jihad: holy war CIA support of Iranian Shah Mohammed Reza

Pahlavi (1919-1980), overthrown in Iranian Revolution of 1979 Led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini Held U.S. diplomats hostage for two years Shut down US facilities, confiscated economic

ventures

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Blindfolded U.S. Diplomats

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The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) Saddam Hussein (Iraq, 1937-2006 ) uses oil, US support

to build huge military machine Attacks Iran, 1980 Massive destruction, ends in stalemate Hussein attacks Kuwait, provokes Gulf War (1991) US-led coalition drives him out, imposes sanctions President George W. Bush (1946- ) attacks in search of

Weapons of Mass Destruction, 2003, occupies Iraq

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Developments in Latin America Mexico: failed attempts to redistribute land Argentina: military dominate politics

Juan Perón (1895-1974) elected president, 1946 Wife Eva (Evita) especially popular (1919-1952)

Guatemala and Nicaragua: US intervention as local governments attempt to control US economic interests

Under Reagan, US supports anti-communist Contra forces

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Establishment of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) Formed 1963 Declared boundaries permanent

Despite arbitrary nature, necessary to forestall conflicts

Promotion of Pan-Africanism Failure to prevent ethnic strife, even Nkrumah deposed

1966

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South Africa

Apartheid (1948) 87% of territory for whites Division of Africans into tribes, settlement in “homelands”

African National Congress publishes Freedom Charter (1955)

Repression of ANC causes worldwide ostracism of SA

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Nelson Mandela

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Dismantling of Apartheid

Release of Nelson Mandela, 1990 Negotiation of end of white minority rule 1994 elections bring ANC to power Relatively calm transition to democratic society Strength of SA economy

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Rwanda: Perils of Ethnicity

Characteristic of ethnic divisions in African societies

Civil war in 1994 after moderate President killed Hutu extremists vs. Tutsis, Hutu moderates Nearly 1m killed