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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice HallHall 11
Chapter 4:Chapter 4:Logical Database Design Logical Database Design and the Relational Modeland the Relational Model
Modern Database Modern Database ManagementManagement
1010hh Edition EditionJeffrey A. Hoffer, V. Ramesh, Jeffrey A. Hoffer, V. Ramesh,
Heikki TopiHeikki Topi
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ObjectivesObjectives Define termsDefine terms List five properties of relationsList five properties of relations State two properties of candidate keysState two properties of candidate keys Define first, second, and third normal formDefine first, second, and third normal form Describe problems from merging relationsDescribe problems from merging relations Transform E-R and EER diagrams to Transform E-R and EER diagrams to
relationsrelations Create tables with entity and relational Create tables with entity and relational
integrity constraintsintegrity constraints Use normalization to convert anomalous Use normalization to convert anomalous
tables to well-structured relationstables to well-structured relations
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RelationRelation A relation is a named, two-dimensional table of data. A relation is a named, two-dimensional table of data. A table consists of rows (records) and columns A table consists of rows (records) and columns
(attribute or field).(attribute or field). Requirements for a table to qualify as a Requirements for a table to qualify as a
relation:relation: It must have a unique name.It must have a unique name. Every attribute value must be atomic (not multivalued, not Every attribute value must be atomic (not multivalued, not
composite).composite). Every row must be unique (can’t have two rows with exactly the Every row must be unique (can’t have two rows with exactly the
same values for all their fields).same values for all their fields). Attributes (columns) in tables must have unique names.Attributes (columns) in tables must have unique names. The order of the columns must be irrelevant.The order of the columns must be irrelevant. The order of the rows must be irrelevant.The order of the rows must be irrelevant.
NOTE: all NOTE: all relationsrelations are in are in 11stst Normal form Normal form
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Correspondence with E-R Correspondence with E-R ModelModel
Relations (tables) correspond with entity types Relations (tables) correspond with entity types and with many-to-many relationship types.and with many-to-many relationship types.
Rows correspond with entity instances and Rows correspond with entity instances and with many-to-many relationship instances.with many-to-many relationship instances.
Columns correspond with attributes.Columns correspond with attributes.
NOTE: The word NOTE: The word relationrelation (in relational (in relational database) is NOT the same as the word database) is NOT the same as the word relationshiprelationship (in E-R model). (in E-R model).
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Key FieldsKey Fields
Keys are special fields that serve two main purposes:Keys are special fields that serve two main purposes: Primary keysPrimary keys are are uniqueunique identifiers of the relation in identifiers of the relation in
question. Examples include employee numbers, social question. Examples include employee numbers, social security numbers, etc. security numbers, etc. This is how we can guarantee that all This is how we can guarantee that all rows are unique.rows are unique.
Foreign keysForeign keys are identifiers that enable a are identifiers that enable a dependentdependent relation (on the many side of a relationship) to refer to its relation (on the many side of a relationship) to refer to its parentparent relation (on the one side of the relationship). relation (on the one side of the relationship).
Keys can be Keys can be simplesimple (a single field) or (a single field) or compositecomposite (more than one field).(more than one field).
Keys usually are used as indexes to speed up the Keys usually are used as indexes to speed up the response to user queries (more on this in Chapter 5).response to user queries (more on this in Chapter 5).
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Primary Key
Foreign Key (implements 1:N relationship between customer and order)
Combined, these are a composite primary key (uniquely identifies the order line)…individually they are foreign keys (implement M:N relationship between order and product)
Figure 4-3 Schema for four relations (Pine Valley Furniture Company)
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Integrity ConstraintsIntegrity Constraints
Domain ConstraintsDomain Constraints Allowable values for an attribute. See Allowable values for an attribute. See
Table 4-1Table 4-1 Entity IntegrityEntity Integrity
No primary key attribute may be null. No primary key attribute may be null. All primary key fields All primary key fields MUSTMUST have data have data
Action AssertionsAction Assertions Business rules. Recall from Chapter 4Business rules. Recall from Chapter 4
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Domain definitions enforce domain integrity constraints
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Integrity ConstraintsIntegrity Constraints
Referential Integrity–rule states that any foreign key Referential Integrity–rule states that any foreign key value (on the relation of the many side) MUST match a value (on the relation of the many side) MUST match a primary key value in the relation of the one side. (Or the primary key value in the relation of the one side. (Or the foreign key can be null) foreign key can be null) For example: Delete RulesFor example: Delete Rules
Restrict–don’t allow delete of “parent” side if related rows Restrict–don’t allow delete of “parent” side if related rows exist in “dependent” sideexist in “dependent” side
Cascade–automatically delete “dependent” side rows that Cascade–automatically delete “dependent” side rows that correspond with the “parent” side row to be deletedcorrespond with the “parent” side row to be deleted
Set-to-Null–set the foreign key in the dependent side to null if Set-to-Null–set the foreign key in the dependent side to null if deleting from the parent side deleting from the parent side not allowed for weak entities not allowed for weak entities
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Figure 4-5 Referential integrity constraints (Pine Valley Furniture)
Referential integrity
constraints are drawn via arrows from dependent to
parent table
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Figure 4-6 SQL table definitions
Referential integrity
constraints are implemented with
foreign key to primary key references
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Transforming EER Diagrams Transforming EER Diagrams into Relationsinto Relations
Mapping Regular Entities to Relations Mapping Regular Entities to Relations 1.1. Simple attributes: E-R attributes map Simple attributes: E-R attributes map
directly onto the relationdirectly onto the relation
2.2. Composite attributes: Use only their Composite attributes: Use only their simple, component attributes simple, component attributes
3.3. Multivalued Attribute: Becomes a Multivalued Attribute: Becomes a separate relation with a foreign key separate relation with a foreign key taken from the superior entitytaken from the superior entity
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(a) CUSTOMER entity type with simple attributes
Figure 4-8 Mapping a regular entity
(b) CUSTOMER relation
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(a) CUSTOMER entity type with composite attribute
Figure 4-9 Mapping a composite attribute
(b) CUSTOMER relation with address detail
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Figure 4-10 Mapping an entity with a multivalued attribute
One–to–many relationship between original entity and new relation
(a)
Multivalued attribute becomes a separate relation with foreign key
(b)
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Transforming EER Diagrams Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)into Relations (cont.)
Mapping Weak EntitiesMapping Weak Entities Becomes a separate relation with a Becomes a separate relation with a
foreign key taken from the superior foreign key taken from the superior entityentity
Primary key composed of:Primary key composed of: Partial identifier of weak entityPartial identifier of weak entity Primary key of identifying relation Primary key of identifying relation
(strong entity)(strong entity)
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Figure 4-11 Example of mapping a weak entity
a) Weak entity DEPENDENT
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NOTE: the domain constraint for the foreign key should NOT allow null value if DEPENDENT is a weak entity
Foreign key
Composite primary key
Figure 4-11 Example of mapping a weak entity (cont.)
b) Relations resulting from weak entity
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Transforming EER Diagrams Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)into Relations (cont.)
Mapping Binary RelationshipsMapping Binary Relationships One-to-Many–Primary key on the one side One-to-Many–Primary key on the one side
becomes a foreign key on the many sidebecomes a foreign key on the many side Many-to-Many–Create a Many-to-Many–Create a new relationnew relation
with the primary keys of the two entities with the primary keys of the two entities as its primary keyas its primary key
One-to-One–Primary key on the mandatory One-to-One–Primary key on the mandatory side becomes a foreign key on the side becomes a foreign key on the optional sideoptional side
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Figure 4-12 Example of mapping a 1:M relationship
a) Relationship between customers and orders
Note the mandatory one
b) Mapping the relationship
Again, no null value in the foreign key…this is because of the mandatory minimum cardinality
Foreign key
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Figure 4-13 Example of mapping an M:N relationship
a) Completes relationship (M:N)
The Completes relationship will need to become a separate relation
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New intersection
relation
Foreign key
Foreign key
Composite primary key
Figure 4-13 Example of mapping an M:N relationship (cont.)
b) Three resulting relations
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Figure 4-14 Example of mapping a binary 1:1 relationship
a) In charge relationship (1:1)
Often in 1:1 relationships, one direction is optional
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b) Resulting relations
Figure 4-14 Example of mapping a binary 1:1 relationship (cont.)
Foreign key goes in the relation on the optional side,matching the primary key on the mandatory side
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Transforming EER Diagrams Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)into Relations (cont.)
Mapping Associative EntitiesMapping Associative Entities Identifier Not Assigned Identifier Not Assigned
Default primary key for the Default primary key for the association relation is composed of association relation is composed of the primary keys of the two entities the primary keys of the two entities (as in M:N relationship)(as in M:N relationship)
Identifier Assigned Identifier Assigned It is natural and familiar to end-usersIt is natural and familiar to end-users Default identifier may not be uniqueDefault identifier may not be unique
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Figure 4-15 Example of mapping an associative entity
a) An associative entity
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Figure 4-15 Example of mapping an associative entity (cont.)
b) Three resulting relations
Composite primary key formed from the two foreign keys
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Figure 4-16 Example of mapping an associative entity with an identifier
a) SHIPMENT associative entity
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Figure 4-16 Example of mapping an associative entity with an identifier (cont.)
b) Three resulting relations
Primary key differs from foreign keys
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Transforming EER Diagrams Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)into Relations (cont.)
Mapping Unary RelationshipsMapping Unary Relationships One-to-Many–Recursive foreign key in the One-to-Many–Recursive foreign key in the
same relationsame relation Many-to-Many–Two relations:Many-to-Many–Two relations:
One for the entity typeOne for the entity type One for an associative relation in which One for an associative relation in which
the primary key has two attributes, the primary key has two attributes, both taken from the primary key of the both taken from the primary key of the entityentity
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Figure 4-17 Mapping a unary 1:N relationship
(a) EMPLOYEE entity with unary relationship
(b) EMPLOYEE relation with recursive foreign key
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Figure 4-18 Mapping a unary M:N relationship
(a) Bill-of-materials relationships (M:N)
(b) ITEM and COMPONENT relations
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Transforming EER Diagrams Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)into Relations (cont.)
Mapping Ternary (and n-ary) Mapping Ternary (and n-ary) RelationshipsRelationships One relation for each entity and One relation for each entity and
one for the associative entityone for the associative entity Associative entity has foreign keys Associative entity has foreign keys
to each entity in the relationshipto each entity in the relationship
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Figure 4-19 Mapping a ternary relationship
a) PATIENT TREATMENT Ternary relationship with associative entity
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b) Mapping the ternary relationship PATIENT TREATMENT
Remember that the
primary key MUST be
unique
Figure 4-19 Mapping a ternary relationship (cont.)
This is why treatment date and time are
included in the composite
primary key
But this makes a very
cumbersome key…
It would be better to create a
surrogate key like Treatment#
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Transforming EER Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations Diagrams into Relations
(cont.)(cont.)Mapping Supertype/Subtype RelationshipsMapping Supertype/Subtype Relationships
One relation for supertype and for each subtypeOne relation for supertype and for each subtype Supertype attributes (including identifier and Supertype attributes (including identifier and
subtype discriminator) go into supertype relationsubtype discriminator) go into supertype relation Subtype attributes go into each subtype; primary Subtype attributes go into each subtype; primary
key of supertype relation also becomes primary key of supertype relation also becomes primary key of subtype relationkey of subtype relation
1:1 relationship established between supertype 1:1 relationship established between supertype and each subtype, with supertype as primary and each subtype, with supertype as primary tabletable
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Figure 4-20 Supertype/subtype relationships
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Figure 4-21 Mapping supertype/subtype relationships to relations
These are implemented as one-to-one relationships
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Data NormalizationData Normalization Primarily a tool to validate and Primarily a tool to validate and
improve a logical design so that it improve a logical design so that it satisfies certain constraints that satisfies certain constraints that avoid unnecessary avoid unnecessary duplication of dataduplication of data
The process of decomposing The process of decomposing relations with anomalies to produce relations with anomalies to produce smaller, smaller, well-structuredwell-structured relationsrelations
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Well-Structured RelationsWell-Structured Relations A relation that contains minimal data redundancy A relation that contains minimal data redundancy
and allows users to insert, delete, and update and allows users to insert, delete, and update rows without causing data inconsistenciesrows without causing data inconsistencies
Goal is to avoid anomaliesGoal is to avoid anomalies Insertion AnomalyInsertion Anomaly–adding new rows forces user to –adding new rows forces user to
create duplicate datacreate duplicate data Deletion AnomalyDeletion Anomaly–deleting rows may cause a loss of –deleting rows may cause a loss of
data that would be needed for other future rowsdata that would be needed for other future rows Modification AnomalyModification Anomaly–changing data in a row forces –changing data in a row forces
changes to other rows because of duplicationchanges to other rows because of duplication
General rule of thumb: A table should not pertain to more than one entity type
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Example–Figure 4-2bExample–Figure 4-2b
Question–Is this a relation? Answer–Yes: Unique rows and no multivalued attributes
Question–What’s the primary key? Answer–Composite: EmpID, CourseTitle
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Anomalies in this TableAnomalies in this Table InsertionInsertion–can’t enter a new employee without –can’t enter a new employee without
having the employee take a classhaving the employee take a class DeletionDeletion–if we remove employee 140, we lose –if we remove employee 140, we lose
information about the existence of a Tax Acc information about the existence of a Tax Acc classclass
ModificationModification–giving a salary increase to –giving a salary increase to employee 100 forces us to update multiple employee 100 forces us to update multiple recordsrecordsWhy do these anomalies exist?
Because there are two themes (entity types) in this one relation. This results in data duplication and an unnecessary dependency between the entities
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Functional Dependencies and Functional Dependencies and KeysKeys
Functional Dependency: The value of one Functional Dependency: The value of one attribute (the attribute (the determinantdeterminant) determines ) determines the value of another attributethe value of another attribute
Candidate Key:Candidate Key: A unique identifier. One of the candidate A unique identifier. One of the candidate
keys will become the primary keykeys will become the primary key E.g. perhaps there is both credit card number and E.g. perhaps there is both credit card number and
SS# in a table…in this case both are candidate SS# in a table…in this case both are candidate keyskeys
Each non-key field is functionally dependent Each non-key field is functionally dependent on every candidate keyon every candidate key
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Figure 4.22 Steps in normalization
3rd normal form is generally considered sufficient
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First Normal FormFirst Normal Form No multivalued attributesNo multivalued attributes Every attribute value is atomicEvery attribute value is atomic Fig. 4-25 Fig. 4-25 is notis not in 1 in 1stst Normal Form Normal Form
(multivalued attributes) (multivalued attributes) it is not a it is not a relationrelation
Fig. 4-26 Fig. 4-26 isis in 1 in 1stst Normal form Normal form All relationsAll relations are in 1 are in 1stst Normal Form Normal Form
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Table with multivalued attributes, not in 1st normal form
Note: this is NOT a relation
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Table with no multivalued attributes and unique rows, in 1st normal form
Note: this is a relation, but not a well-structured one
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Anomalies in this TableAnomalies in this Table InsertionInsertion–if new product is ordered for order –if new product is ordered for order
1007 of existing customer, customer data 1007 of existing customer, customer data must be re-entered, causing duplicationmust be re-entered, causing duplication
DeletionDeletion–if we delete the Dining Table from –if we delete the Dining Table from Order 1006, we lose information concerning Order 1006, we lose information concerning this item's finish and pricethis item's finish and price
UpdateUpdate–changing the price of product ID 4 –changing the price of product ID 4 requires update in multiple recordsrequires update in multiple records
Why do these anomalies exist? Because there are multiple themes (entity types) in one relation. This results in duplication and an unnecessary dependency between the entities
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Second Normal FormSecond Normal Form 1NF PLUS 1NF PLUS every non-key every non-key
attribute is fully functionally attribute is fully functionally dependent on the ENTIRE dependent on the ENTIRE primary keyprimary key Every non-key attribute must be Every non-key attribute must be
defined by the entire key, not by only defined by the entire key, not by only part of the keypart of the key
No partial functional dependenciesNo partial functional dependencies
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OrderID OrderDate, CustomerID, CustomerName, CustomerAddress
Therefore, NOT in 2nd Normal Form
CustomerID CustomerName, CustomerAddress
ProductID ProductDescription, ProductFinish, ProductStandardPrice
OrderID, ProductID OrderQuantity
Figure 4-27 Functional dependency diagram for INVOICE
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Partial dependencies are removed, but there are still transitive dependencies
Getting it into Getting it into Second Normal Second Normal FormForm
Figure 4-28 Removing partial dependencies
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Third Normal FormThird Normal Form 2NF PLUS 2NF PLUS no transitive dependenciesno transitive dependencies
(functional dependencies on non-primary-key (functional dependencies on non-primary-key attributes)attributes)
Note: This is called transitive, because the Note: This is called transitive, because the primary key is a determinant for another primary key is a determinant for another attribute, which in turn is a determinant for a attribute, which in turn is a determinant for a thirdthird
Solution: Non-key determinant with transitive Solution: Non-key determinant with transitive dependencies go into a new table; non-key dependencies go into a new table; non-key determinant becomes primary key in the determinant becomes primary key in the new table and stays as foreign key in the old new table and stays as foreign key in the old table table
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Transitive dependencies are removed
Figure 4-29 Removing partial dependencies
Getting it into Getting it into Third Normal Third Normal FormForm
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Merging RelationsMerging Relations View Integration–Combining entities from View Integration–Combining entities from
multiple ER models into common relationsmultiple ER models into common relations Issues to watch out for when merging entities Issues to watch out for when merging entities
from different ER models:from different ER models: Synonyms–two or more attributes with different Synonyms–two or more attributes with different
names but same meaningnames but same meaning Homonyms–attributes with same name but different Homonyms–attributes with same name but different
meaningsmeanings Transitive dependencies–even if relations are in 3NF Transitive dependencies–even if relations are in 3NF
prior to merging, they may not be after mergingprior to merging, they may not be after merging Supertype/subtype relationships–may be hidden Supertype/subtype relationships–may be hidden
prior to mergingprior to merging
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Enterprise KeysEnterprise Keys
Primary keys that are unique in the whole Primary keys that are unique in the whole database, not just within a single relationdatabase, not just within a single relation
Corresponds with the concept of an object Corresponds with the concept of an object ID in object-oriented systemsID in object-oriented systems
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Figure 4-31 Enterprise keys
a) Relations with enterprise key
b) Sample data with enterprise key
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