33

Chapter 4The study site as a Cultural Landscape

Cultural Landscapes have been defined by the World Heritage Committee as

“distinct geographical areas or properties uniquely representing the combined work of

nature and of man". Corresponding to this, the north–east Indian region is manifested

with a blend of cultural diversity and biological diversity with a variety of land–use

systems, ecosystems both natural and man–made managed with traditional knowledge

(Ramakrishnan, 2006). Globally, cultural landscape studies have systematically

classified, distinguished, and described human features within areas to gain insights into

the role of humans in transforming the natural landscape and culture itself. In all,

cultural landscapes are a reflection for sustainable land–use, considering the

characteristics and limits of the natural environment they are established in, and a certain

kind of relation with nature (Box 4.1). Protection of cultural landscapes can contribute to

modern techniques of sustainable land–use and can maintain or enhance natural values

in the landscape. The continued existence of traditional forms of land–use supports

biological diversity in many regions of the world. The protection of traditional cultural

landscapes is therefore helpful in maintaining biological diversity.

Box 4.1 The Cultural Landscape

It was Carl O. Sauer (1925), a human geographer, who was probably the most

influential in promoting and developing the idea of cultural landscapes. His classic

definition of a 'cultural landscape' reads as follows:

“The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a cultural

group. Culture is the agent, natural area is the medium, cultural landscape is the result”.

With rapid depletion of biodiversity in the developing world, there is a greater

realization today than ever before of the value of respecting the ‘sacred’ as a tool

towards better conservation of natural resources. Whilst aiming to provide a better

quality of life, based upon a redeveloped agricultural production system that is built

around traditional land use practices of mountain people, the concept of the sacred

landscape is a model which could be effectively used for ensuring community

34

participation in its sustainable management. For instance, the traditional ecological

knowledge (TEK), which is the basis for natural resource conservation by indigenous

societies, is a key driver for managing their natural and human managed traditional

agricultural systems.

With over a hundred different linguistic ethnic groups living in the north–eastern

hill region alone, each with their own cultural traditions yearly calendars of rituals and

nature–linked celebrations and associated music and dance forms, the cultural diversity

linked with biodiversity and associated TEK base is indeed significant. The coexistence

of different ethnic societies living together in the same area sharing natural resources

with some degree of mutual avoidance in terms of their land use activities is indicative

of the complexities that a larger cultural landscape unit could assume.

Apatani plateau as a cultural landscape

Apatanis are one of the major tribes of Arunachal Pradesh occupying the

heartland of Lower Subansiri district, Ziro (Table 4.1). They belong to the Tibeto–

Mongoloid stock and are considered to be descendants of one legendary ancestor

Abotani. They migrated to Ziro from Talley valley in south-eastern region (Haimendorf,

1962). Initially they settled in seven villages according to their ancestors, viz. Nichi–

Nitii, Tinii–Diibo–Dre–Hija and Talyang–Hao. The Apatani’s still dwell in these seven

villages. They follow Donyi Polo religion, which is somewhat similar to Hinduism and

their society is of patriarchal type. Located in north-east India, between 26° 55’–28°21’

N and 92°40’–94°21’ E of the Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh, the

Apatanis have a very highly evolved land management system perfected over centuries.

Their rural forestry management practices and the agricultural–forestry inter–phase

linkages and the linked animal husbandry and domestic sub–systems are all expressions

of the very sophisticated nature–culture interconnections. Evidently, they have been

referred to as one of the most advanced agricultural community of northeastern region

(Rai, 2004). Their system of rice fish culture is highly effective and many centuries old.

An integrated paddy–fish farming system is found in some parts of China, Japan,

Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar and India. In some cases

these systems date back virtually to when man started paddy cultivation. In India it is

35

widely practiced in parts of West Bengal, Orissa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,

Assam, Arunachal and Tripura (Grayu, 2007). The Apatani system of rice fish culture is

unique in the respect that it is completely manual, involving only human labour and

purely organic in nature. Also the seeds used are indigenous to the area, no hybrids are

used. In fact their system of agriculture is completely based on the age old indigenous

knowledge system. This is one of the reasons why the fertility of the soil has been

retained even after a century of cultivation of the same piece of land.

Integrated system of rice-fish culture has become an additional source of income

and important economic avenue of the Apatani farmers. In Japan, common carp culture

in rice fields is quite advanced (Hickling, 1962). However, it had serious setbacks

because of pesticide use in paddy cultivation. The paddy-fish culture of the Apatani,

however, is a purely an organic farming practice and is distinctly characteristic of

Apatani agro-ecosystem. UNESCO has therefore, proposed Ziro valley as a World

Heritage Site for its ancient custom, forming the basis of the eco-preservation efforts.

The land and water resource utilization system developed by Apatanis is

essentially necessitated by the limited land resource available for large population base.

The Apatanis are densely concentrated in the Ziro valley of Lower Subansiri district.

According to estimates Ziro valley occupies 0.03% of Arunachal’s total geographical

area and supports about 2.26 % of population of the state.

Land–use Pattern

Apatani agriculture is more than a century old and has only been perfected over

the years. It is distinctly different from agricultural practices of others in the northeastern

region. The exceptionally high energy efficiency of this agro ecosystem is 60-80 units

per unit of energy input, which is markedly different from the rice systems of other

tribes with an output/input ratio of 4–18 (Ramakrishnan, 1992). It is also higher than the

energy efficiency of jhum in northeast India (>50). The energy efficiency of Apatani

agriculture is far more superior to the traditional wet rice cultivation in the Indian plains

with efficiency of about 9 (Mitchell, 1979; Nguu and Palis, 1977). With 27-35 MJ units

of energy output per labour hour, this system compares favorably with similar systems

of China (32.8 MJ) (Dazhong and Pimentel, 1984) and more modern agriculture of

36

industrialized societies (Leach, 1976), such as the United Kingdom, with an output of 40

MJ units.

Customary laws of the Apatanis

Any traditional society has its own set of customary laws to deal with the daily

conflicts within the people. The laws are implemented by a set of elderly experienced

and knowledgeable peoples who meet on regular basis to discuss and solve such

conflicts (Table 4.2).

Agricultural practice of the Apatanis

The Apatanis practice a very highly evolved indigenous farming system. Their

system of agriculture is purely organic and no animals or mechanization is being used.

Nutrient washouts from the nearby hills during rains enrich the soil fertility. Recycling

crop residues and using organic wastes from animal husbandry and households also add

to the soil organic matter. Biodegradable wastes from homes such as vegetable wastes,

excreta of domestic animals etc are also added to the soil. The excreta of the fishes

which are also raised along with the rice by the Apatanis do add to the soil fertility. Also

at the time of harvesting, only spikelet’s of the rice are cut and threshed in the fields. The

stems are left in the fields itself for decaying. The rice husks are also added to the soil.

Weeds are also not taken out from the fields. Rather all of these are directly burnt in the

fields which add to the soil carbon.

The canal system is so designed that it collects all the waste water from the

villages and drains to the soil. Through these canals the run-off from the forest floor are

also directly lead to the rice fields. The plots which are not connected by the main canal

collect any organic material from the forest through the normal bamboo pipe connected

to the plots. The organic material getting accumulated near the inlets are collected by

hand and applied to the fields.

The Apatanis practice one of the most efficient forms of agriculture (Table 4.3).

They have a highly managed irrigation system. Run-off from the forests are collected at

the foothills and channeled to either side of the valley. The water from these canals is

irrigated to each and every plot of rice and fish cultivation through a network of

37

secondary and tertiary canals. The network is so designed to maintain a surplus of water

level in all the fields, but at the same time it is also ensured that any excess water is

drained back into the primary canal without loss of any organic matter. In higher

elevation where water intake is lower, bamboo pipes of small circumferences are used

and in lower areas pipes made up of pine trunks that are split vertically and hollowed are

used.

To reduce the loss of organic matter or fish from the farms, bamboo traps or

straw beddings are constructed. Also the outflow pipes are placed above the surface of

the lower plots so that water cannot flow backwards. Plant species such as Phragmites

sp., Lingnstrum sp., Castanopsis sp., Pinus wallichiana, bamboo etc are planted near the

main canals. These species reduce the speed of water flow, thus reducing soil erosion.

The bunds in the fields are repaired every year before cultivation of rice. Weeds such as

Houtuyinia cordata are not removed from the fields as they bind the soil and prevent soil

erosion in the bunds. Bamboo is also used for supporting wider bunds.

To protect the crops from damage, fencings are constructed along the field with

bamboo, timber and cane. The fencings are repaired every year in late November.

Fences are made with Salix sikkimensis (a type of willow), Pyrus pashia (or Indian wild

pear) and Ligustrum sp. (known as privet, a common species used for hedges), which are

all more durable.

In Apatani agriculture women play a dominant role. They prepare the land for

cultivation and men are involved in construction and repair of bunds along the fields.

During harvesting however, women cut the spikes and men do the threshing in field

itself.

Traditional farmers’ groupsThe Apatanis have a unique system of traditional farmers’ groups which have

evolved through years. The history and development of these unique groups are difficult

to track because of the lack of any written records. The Apatanis have eight different

types of informal farmer organization and each of the groups have been assigned with a

specific work. According to the function performed by these groups, they are valued

differently in the community. For example, the Bogo group is mainly concerned with

38

providing with irrigation water to all the fields and hence is considered as an important

group in the farming community Apatani valley.

The farmers know that traditional practices are very important for maintaining

sustainable production systems, and that farmer groups are the foundations of these

practices. Most farmers recognize that, without farmer groups, agroecosystem

management will easily weaken, and the technical ecological knowledge which supports

it will quickly erode: farmers think that the groups are effective in managing the agro-

ecosystems. Except for financial support, particularly for erosion control, fencing and

drainage maintenance, the farmers do not receive or seek any technological interventions

or other help from any outside agencies. Outside experts have highlighted the Apatani

rice-fish culture system as one of the most efficient crop production systems,

encouraging the Apatani farmers to continue their traditional practices.

Some farmer groups also have finance secretary or Passer Binee who collects any money

and maintains the farmer group’s accounts. The cash maintained by the organization is

normally used for purchasing the materials needed to carry out community tasks which

are not available naturally. Loans are also available within the group or community. The

amount of loan depends on the security (agricultural field, bamboo garden or homestead)

provided by the borrower. This not only helps those in needs, but also helps to generate

income for community work. Although the traditional village council or Bulyang is the

supreme authority in Apatani community, it has a limited role in farmers groups; only

occasionally it may assist in case of dispute.

Most of these farmers groups are permanent, based around communal needs and

mutual reliance. In this way they also help to maintain social harmony and cohesiveness.

Cropping calendar of the Apatanis

Apatani villages have a monthly calendar of agricultural activities for

maintaining optimum agricultural productivity. These traditions start with rituals

specifically intended to induce better crop yields. The rituals have great significance for

the Apatani community as they bind agricultural activities with the socio-cultural

institutions and animal husbandary. Murung is the ritual that starts with the sacrifice of

Mithun (Bos frontalis) and it marks the beginning of weeding repairing of bunds and

39

canals and maintenance of agricultural plots. It is performed for prosperity, well–being

and the protection of property. Kagee–Honee is another ritual performed in association

with the repairing of bunds and for better germination of seeds. Agricultural calendar of

the Apatanis is briefly presented in Table 4.4.

Like any other tribes of north–east India, rice is the staple food crop of Apatanis.

Along with paddy, fish and millets are also grown in the same field. Other food crops

and vegetables are also grown in the upland areas which are known as Yorlu. Table 4.5

presents a list of food crops grown in the Apatani valley and period during which they

are grown.

Agricultural produce (eg. Rice, maize, millet) is stored in well–designed

traditional granaries (Neshu), which are usually located away from the main settlements

and arranged in rows for each clan. Like the houses, the granaries are also constructed of

bamboo and timber, and the storage compartment is usually 1–2m above the ground. The

granaries are built at higher elevations in order to avoid moisture retention and

infestation of crop pets that might occur if they were nearer the paddies. Millet is stored

in containers, whereas rice is placed directly in the granary.

As evident, Apatani agriculture is purely organic in nature. Indigenous varieties

of crops are grown and organic wastes from household, wastes of domestic animals etc

are added as manure to the soil. Bio-fencing is done as it is not only eco-friendly but also

efficient. Now-a-days, many transitions have taken place in the management practices.

In 1990s, for increasing the yield new concepts such as high yielding varieties (HYVs),

inorganic fertilizers etc. have been introduced. Cultivation of HYVs required large

amounts of chemical fertilizers which in turn degraded the soil to some extent. Hence,

these days’ farmers are again switching back to traditional varieties. Bio-fencing has

been replaced by barbed wire fencing in some of the places. Live herbs and shrubs

which have traditionally been used for erosion control on the banks of the stream have

disappeared slowly over the years, affecting the flood mitigation technique. In place

concrete constructions have come up for flood control. Bamboo and wooden pipes used

in irrigation water supply have been replaced by lead or plastic materials. Agro-

biodiversity has also decreased over the years.

40

Apatani agriculture is going through a period of transition. There has been an

increase in migrant population in the valley. They are mainly labourers coming to the

valley for timber sawing, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) extraction, stone mining

etc. These days an increasing trend of using hired labours in the agricultural fields has

been observed. There has been due to shortage of local labours, the youths are

increasingly migrating to the cities in search of job, education etc., which has in turn

reduced the availability of free labour in the valley agro ecosystems. As evident from the

practices of land management have been changing. Many traditional practices are on the

verge of extinction. Documentation of these indigenous knowledge systems is therefore

necessary for future generations.

Apatanis have realized the importance of their fragile ecosystem and rich

indigenous knowledge systems. In addition to the prevailing customary laws, the village

development committee in some villages has undertaken some resolutions for

safeguarding their fragile ecosystem. It has been resolved that agricultural land would

not be allowed to be converted into any other landuse and banning the sand and stone

mining along the irrigation canals. Penalties are also imposed where traditional rituals

and practices are violated.

It has been observed that the agriculture practiced by the Apatanis provides an

interesting example of an elaborate and most efficient system of soil exploitation carried

out within the confines of a valley lying at an altitude of about 1524 m asl and ringed by

mountains rising to heights of over 2438m asl. Apatanis have a unique system of

agriculture. They are the only tribes practicing settled cultivation in such a high altitude

zone. Rice-cum-fish cultivation of the Apatanis is world famous practice which utilizes

every inch of the field in a sustainable way. The Apatanis practice purely organic form

of agricultural system. The methods of irrigated cultivation developed by the Apatanis

are all the more remarkable. An intricate network of primary and secondary canals

provides the fields with sufficient water for the paddy and fishes. Yet it is paradoxical

that the methods of tillage of the Apatanis remain primitive in that they depend entirely

on human toil without the aid of a plough, and the tilling is done ‘with iron hoes, digging

sticks and wooden batons’, although they are highly specialized in other respects.

41

The Apatanis have developed a remarkable system of irrigation in about 32 sq.

km stretch of a narrow valley occupied by them. The plain land of the Apatani valley is

drained by the Kele, a small river. Water from this river and the other streams is diverted

by a network of channels to the rice-fields. The corner stone of Apatani agriculture is the

cultivation of rice on irrigated terraces. Rice is the staple food, and all other crops are

grown mainly to provide variety of diet and to utilize those portions of the country not

suitable for irrigation. The larger streams emerging around the Apatani valley is tapped

soon after it emerges from the forest and reaches a gully wide enough to accommodate a

series of narrow terraces. A short distance above the terraces occurs the first diversion

from the stream continues on its course while the feeder channel, branching off at an

angle, leads water alongside the series of terraces so that by blocking or opening the

connecting ducts any field can be flooded or drained as required. The genius of the

Apatanis has manifested itself rather in a meticulous and expert care lavished on every

crop, than in impressive feats of engineering. Yet the layout of the terraces is no mean

example of co–ordination of effort and perfection of technique. The rainfall is so ample

and the many streams and rivulets converging from the ring of high wooded ranges bring

so much water into the shallow bowl of the Apatani valley, that the flooding of all the

low–lying terraces is on the whole not a problem.

Over all, Apatani culture is intricately interwoven with their surrounding

environment and because of this reason they are considered as efficient natural resource

managers. They have many beliefs regarding the forests and various deities that reside in

these forests. Unlike other tribes they do not cut and burn large patches of land on the

hills or surrounding areas. The surrounding hills are hence well preserved in the Apatani

valley. Apatanis have patches of areas in the forest which are restricted from any kind of

human interferences. They are briefly discussed below:

Sacred groves in the study site

The ‘sacred groves’ can be defined as a patch of vegetation, ranging in extent

from a few trees to hectares or more, which is left undisturbed because of its association

with some deity (Table 4.6). In its original form this protection forbade any interference

with the biota of the grove whatever, and not even leaf litter was removed from it, nor

42

was grazing or any hunting permitted within the grove. Even when the protection has

become less stringent, any removal of the live wood continues to be taboo. These groves

therefore represent a sample of the vegetation in its climax state.

Since times immemorial the local Apatani people have a strong belief that if

anybody enters the Sacred Grove without sacrificing an animal or doing some special

prayers than any unwanted happenings may occur in the village. Some of the indigenous

cultural systems are discussed below:

(1) Ficus Grove (saro san)

The dominant tree of this grove is Ficus bengalensis. The Apatanis believe that

evil spirits called ‘Yapom’ and ‘Doje’ dwells in those groves since time immemorial and

such a sacred groves or a forest patch are never at any condition cut or harmed by the

people belonging to the indigenous community.

(2) Rantii

The Apatani forest patches occurring in the nearby areas believed as ‘sacred’,

which are left unharmed. Any tree species or shrubs, herbs including lianas and climbers

in the sacred patches (Rantii) are left undisturbed and worshipped during rites and rituals

as well as festivals since time immemorial.

(3) Sango

If trees in naturally growing condition near by the community residential area and

other relevant areas have gap or a junction or any unnatural growing pattern, such are

believed unique and thus known as sacred, which are not felled or cut by the

community/individuals.

Lower Subansiri district as a mega–cultural landscape:

Lower Subansiri district presents a mosaic of different cultures as it is inhabited

by different tribes. Interaction of these tribes results in a unique mega–cultural

landscape. Within the identified mega–cultural landscape, there are a total of five

resident ethnic groups residing in the study area, each having a distinct identity of their

43

own. It is seen that Apatani’s residing in the heartland of Lower Subansiri district,

occupy the highest elevation areas (Figure 4.1).

The tribes living in the Lower Subansiri district and its adjoining areas comprises

of Apatani, Nyishi, Hill Miri, Tagin etc., who follow indigenous customs worships of

Sun and Moon namely, Donyi–Polo and Abo–Tani, the original ancestors for most of

these tribes. Their religious rituals largely coincide with phases of agricultural cycles.

They invoke nature deities and make animal sacrifices. Adis and Apatanis extensively

practice wet rice cultivation and have a considerable agricultural economy.

‘Nyishis’ are one of the major tribes in Arunachal Pradesh. However, in the

Lower Subansiri district, they occupy the lower elevation areas (from 200 m asl to 1200

m asl approx.) comprising of Yazali, Pistana, Kamporijo, Raga, Dolungmukh, Palin,

Mengio, Kimin, Puchgeku and Doimukh. And, the ‘Galo’ community occupy south-

eastern and ‘Hill Miris’ occupy the northern slopes of the Apatani valley.

Lower subansiri district presents a mosaic of different cultures because of the

different ethnic tribes inhabiting the region. The socio–cultural status of the people in the

district is represented in Table 4.7.

The Lower Subansiri district has a varied type of forest cover which is

manifested differential altitudinal regime ranging from as low as 1100 m asl to as high as

(Joram Top; 5437 ft. asl) under Ziro II circle with the district headquarter at Ziro, the

valley exist as a unique piece of land (1572 m to 2684 m asl) with abundant rainfall

(2350 mm annually). Monsoon is intense from June to August with light showers during

October–November. The winter temperature drops down to about 2.5° C and about 12.5°

C to 16° C at the highest during winter months (December to February). The type of

forest found under the region is described as an evergreen forest comprising both

temperate and sub alpine coniferous forests. Such forest occurs between 2800 m to 4000

m altitudes beyond temperate broad–leaved evergreen forests. The lower limits of such

forest are dominated by mixed coniferous types, the species composition of which are

given as Abies sp., Pinus sp., Taxus sp., etc. whereas the upper limit is dominated by

species like Abies, Juniperus, Larix, Picea, Tsuga, Taxus, etc (Table 4.8).

The subtropical mixed pine forest occurs between altitudes of 1000 m to 1800 m

in the subtropical regions of the area. Mostly represented by the members of Pinaceae

44

like Pinus kesiya, Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiana, Pinus merkusii mixed with other

members such as Alnus sp., Elaeocarpus sp., Desmodium sp., Berberis spp., Cyathea

spp., etc; shrubby and herbaceous species like Desmodium sp., Indigofera sp., Rubus sp.

Because of recurrent fires during winter, epiphytes and undergrowths are less in these

forests.

These forests are however subjected to various levels of human disturbances, by

which only few patches pristine vegetation is preserved as sacred groves and majority of

the forest cover with wild species have been degraded and/or converted into other form

of land use. This has led to the invasion of degraded sites by obnoxious weeds such as

members of Asteraceae namely Ageratum conizoides and Eupatorium odoratum. The

degraded sites have become common sites for cattle grazing and other human activities,

thus suffer to recover or restore.

Protected areas

Lower Subansiri district occupies an area of 1317 km2, of which 25.6% is under

protected area network. Tale Wildlife Sanctuary is the only protected area network in the

district (Table 4.9). It is situated at about 38 km from Ziro in Lower Subansiri District of

Arunachal Pradesh. As natural botanical garden, this sanctuary extends for an area of

about 337 km2. Wildlife population include leopard, jungle cat, tiger, elephant, bear,

deer, jackal, wild buffalo, large India civet, monkey, palm civet, clouded leopard and

Himalayan black bear. Covered by sub-tropical evergreen forest, temperate broad-leaved

and conifer forest, the sanctuary is a breeding ground for birds. Important birds found

there are horn-bill, cuckoo, dove, owl, woodpecker, bulbul, sparrow, crane etc. It is also

a breeding ground for rare long-billed wren-babbler. The forest also has a collection of

endangered plants and rare orchids. Some of the important forest species are hollock

(Terminalia myriocarpa), jutuli (Altingia excelsa), gamari (Gmelina arborea), champa

(Magnolia champaca), bluepine (Pinus wallichiana), dhuna (Canarium resiniferum) etc.

As per the IUCN recognition, there are 87 (40,632 km2) national parks, 485 (1,

15,374 km2) wildlife sanctuaries and 13 (51,962 km2) biosphere reserves (FSI) in India.

In north–east India, there are 59 protected areas, of which 13 are national parks, 39

wildlife sanctuaries and 4 biosphere reserves. Since 1972, many forest zones have been

45

declared as national parks and sanctuaries. In the north–eastern Indian context, the

protected area network covers about 9.71% of the total geographical area (2, 55,083

km2).

Threats to the mega cultural landscape

The following points have been identified as major threats to the mega–cultural

landscape of Arunachal Pradesh:

Loss of indigenous knowledge system which is attributed by the slow and steady

cultural erosion of tribal societies. Reasons for such erosions are many ranging

from modern forms of education to religious transformations.

Various developmental activities going on in the region. These activities often

fail to address the issues related to the natural environment of the landscape.

Increase in population has also put a tremendous pressure on the natural

resources that have earlier been conserved.

Biodiversity conservation versus development–a cultural landscape analysis:

Integrated use of biodiversity by the people for food, water, fibre, implements,

medicine, energy, housing and cash–generating products accelerate the importance of

biodiversity among the people. Earlier conservation was mainly focus on non–use

values, meanwhile in recent years, it is realized that besides current values future values

of biodiversity are equally important. Developmental activities like road constructions,

dams, urbanization and other allied anthropogenic activities have an adverse effect on

biodiversity. Clearing of forested areas for agricultural purposes have also impacted

upon the environment which has contributed to the changes in climatic conditions. The

problem is further aggravated by over extraction of NTFPs and medicinal plants from

the natural forests.

Over the centuries, generations of farmers and herders have developed complex,

diverse and locally adapted agricultural systems, managed with time–tested, indigenous

combinations of techniques and practices that lead to community food security and the

conservation of natural resources and biodiversity. These microcosms of agricultural

heritage can still be found throughout the world, covering some 5 million hectares, and

46

providing a series of ecological and cultural services to humankind such as the

preservation of traditional forms of farming knowledge, local crop and animal varieties

and autochthonous forms of socio–cultural organization. These systems represent the

accumulated experiences of peasants interacting with their environment using inventive

self–reliance, experiential knowledge, and locally available resources. These agro–

ecosystems that are of global importance to food and agriculture are based on

cultivation of a diversity of crops and varieties in time and space that have allowed

traditional farmers to avert risks and maximize harvest security in uncertain and

marginal environments, under low levels of technology and with limited environmental

impact.

Although cultural landscape studies traditionally have focused on the dispersion

of human features within areas to comprehend processes affecting landscapes and

culture, the gaze of cultural landscape studies has expanded to include investigating the

wider political, social, and economic structures in societies that initially produced these

features. While the more traditional perspectives of the cultural landscape have

contributed knowledge about the details of human features in areas, the contemporary

perspectives have furthered that knowledge by investigating the meanings of these

features.

47

Table 4.1: Study sites and major ethnic tribes in the mega–cultural landscape

Sl No. Place District Inhabitants1 Ziro Lower Subansiri Apatani

2 Yazali Lower Subansiri Nyishi3 Pistana Lower Subansiri Nyishi

4 Kamporijo Lower Subansiri Nyishi

5 Raga Lower Subansiri Nyishi and Hill-Miri6 Dolungmukh Lower Subansiri Nyishi

7 Palin Kurung Kumey Nyishi8 Mengio Papum Pare Nyishi

9 Kimin Papum Pare Nyishi10 Puchgeku Upper Subansiri Nyishi

11 Gasigaon West Siang Galo

12 Doimukh Papum Pare Nyishi

Table 4.2: Customary laws related to natural resource management of the Apatanis

Sl. No Offence Customary law1. Trespassing of paddy fields, bamboo

grooves, kitchen gardens, vegetableand millet gardens, destruction of jhumcultivation etc

The offender has to pay twice the cost ofcrops destructed and a fine of one fullgrown cow to the village authority.

2. Burning of house/ bamboo garden/pine grove etc intentionally

The cost of the damage has to becompensated by the accused and in additionhe/she has to pay a fine of one full grownfemale mithun and one medium size mithunto the village council.

3. Intentional destruction of boundary The accused has to pay twice the cost ofmaterial damaged, a fine of one full growncow and a traditional sword (Chirri soye).

4. Intentional destruction of water pipe inthe paddy fields

The offender has to pay the cost of waterpipe or repair the system personally and alsohas to pay a fine of one full grown cow tothe village council.

5. Intentional destruction of ritual place A fine of one full grown female mithun ischarged by the village council or Bulyang.

48

Table 4.3: Productivity in Apatani agriculture

SystemAnnualinvestment(Rs)

Annualturnover(Rs)

Net annualProfit (Rs)

Return tofixedcapital(%)

Return toinvestment(%)

Profit toturnover(%)

Rice only 31013.00 52460.00 52460.00 22.58 69.15 40.88Rice fishonly

43758.00 89815.00 46057.00 46.06 105.25 51.28

Rice fishwith Azolla

44848.00 96850.00 52002.00 52.00 115.95 53.69

Rice fishwithmanure

45938.00 101975.00 56037.00 56.04 121.98 54.95

Rice fishwith feed

49208.00 115638.00 66430.00 66.43 135.00 57.45

(Source: Modified from Grayu, 2007)

Table 4.4: Agricultural calendar of the Apatanis

Month Local name Agricultural activities Performed

January Murung PuloBy the end of January nursery is prepared and canals are made in thefields.

February Karpa Pulo Leveling and management of nursery.

March Myoko PuloIn this month they celebrate the festival Myoko for about a month andwater from the irrigation canals are diverted to the fields and allowed tostand for some time.

April Halying PuloTransplantation from the nursery to the main fields and along with it fishfingerlings are released in the fields.

May Enda Pulo Transplantation continues.

June Empii Pulo Weeding of the fields.

July Millo Pulo Weeding and harvesting fish is done.

August Haalo Pulo Weeding and fingerlings are put in the fields for the second time.

September Bunchi Pulo Harvest of paddy along with the fish.

October Bunti Pulo Harvest of paddy along with the fish.

November Emmo Pulo Weeding of the fields.

December Nenka Pulo Weeding and bund making.

49

Table 4.5: Commonly grown crops in the Apatani valley

Sl.no. Name of crop Duration of cultivation1. Paddy May–October2. Marwa May–August3. Potato Dec–Feb4. Maize Jan–Jun5. Cucumber Jan–Jun6. Bean Jan–Jun7. Chilly Jan–Jun8. Ginger Jan–Jun

Table 4.6: Sacred groves in and around Ziro, Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh.

Sl. N

o

Name ofvillage

Name ofsacredgroves

Latitude (N) Longitude(E) Altitude(m asl)

Population (inpersons)

No. ofsacredgroves

1. Bamin-Michi

* 27º34'06''–27º34'07'' 93º49'33''–93º49'34''

1615 Bamin–157Michi–188

1

2. Dutta Paapu 27º34'39''–27º49'40'' 93º49'47''–93º49'46''

1548 404 1

3. Hari i) Puminpubiangii) Suthiipachekoiii) Yapunyapyo

27º35'02''–27º35'08''

27º35'48''–27º34'58''

27º35'00''–27º35'52''

93º51'40''–93º51'46''

93º51'02''–93º51'05''

93º51'10''–93º51'13''

1618.50

1623.25

1625.80

Hari–I 436Hari–II 369

3

4. Hong Saro Samii 27º33'01''–27º33'02'' 93º50'34''–93º50'35''

1569 Hong I–1019Hong II–512Hong III–704

1

5. Mudang -Tage

Dilangposa

27º34'22''–27º34'28'' 93.50.04–93.50.11 1564.50 M.T I–177M.T II–370

1

6. Nani-Tajang

* 27º36'02''–27º36'09'' 93º50'18''–93º50'20''

1563 Tajang–612 1

* Some sacred groves don’t have a specific local name and are commonly assigned the term‘Rantii’

50

Table 4.7: Socio-cultural status of the different tribes in the Apatani mega–cultural landscape.Factors Tribes

Apatani Nyishi Galo Tagin Hill MiriPhysiography Inhabiting the

high altitudeareas of thedistrict, startingfrom 1400 masl and above.The area flatand surroundedby hills on allsides

Inhabiting thelow lying areasstarting from200 m asl andgoing upto1100 m asl.

Inhabiting theareas between600-800 m asl.Practice terracecultivation andalso jhum ongentle slopes,though in lessfrequency thancompared toNyishis.

Inhabiting thehigh altitudeareas and steepslopes.

Similar toNyishis.

Number ofvillages

51 269 18 25 25

Literacy Male–74.6%Female–59.8%

Male–47.57%Female–30.8%

Male–61.8%Female–48.6%

Male–54.1%Female–38.8%

Male–66.1%Female–45.7%

Religion Donyi Polo andChristianity

Donyi Polo andChristianity

Donyi Polo andChristianity

Donyi Polo andChristianity

Donyi Polo andChristianity

Language Apatani dialect Nyishi dialect Galo dialect Tagin dialect Hill Miridialect

Festivals Myoko,Murung, Dree,

Nyokum, SironMolo Sochum

Mopin Si Doni Bori Boot

Landusepractices

Wet ricecultivation ispredominant,jhumming israre;homegardensare maintainedwherevegetables andfruits aregrown. Forestsare maintainedanddependency onthem are lesscompared toothers. Bambooand pinegardens arealso managed

Jhum ispredominant.WRC is alsoseen though,kitchen gardensare alsocommon andeveryhouseholdmaintains it.

Terracecultivation iscommon.Kitchengardens arealso seen.

Jhumming ispredominant.

Jhumming ispredominant

51

for householdas well ascommercialuses.

Types ofcrops grown

Cereals– rice,finger millets,maizeVegetables–Brassica,brinjal,pumpkin,gourds, squash,potato, chilies,tomato, otherleafyvegetables,onion etcFruits–kiwi,pears, pitta,guava, plum,apple etcOthers–sweetpotato, yam,tapioca, gingeretc.

Cereals– rice,finger millets,maizeVegetables–Brassica,brinjal,pumpkin,gourds, potato,chilies, tomato,other leafyvegetablesFruits–Orange, guava,pears, banana,pineapple etcOthers–sweetpotato, yam,tapioca, gingeretc.

Cereals– rice,finger millets,maizeVegetables–Brassica,brinjal,pumpkin,gourds, potato,chilies, tomato,other leafyvegetablesFruits–Orange, guava,pears, banana,pineapple,mango, litchietcOthers–sweetpotato, yam,tapioca, gingeretc.

Cereals– rice,finger millets,maizeVegetables–Brassica,brinjal,pumpkin,gourds, potato,chilies, tomato,other leafyvegetablesFruits–Orange, guava,pears, banana,pineapple etcOthers–sweetpotato, yam,tapioca, gingeretc.

Cereals– rice,finger millets,maizeVegetables–Brassica,brinjal,pumpkin,gourds, potato,chilies, tomato,other leafyvegetablesFruits–Orange, guava,pears, banana,pineapple etcOthers–sweetpotato, yam,tapioca, gingeretc.

Housingpattern

Most of thehouses aremade up ofbamboo andpine wood.Roofs are madefrom tin sheetsand split-bamboo. Somercc-houses arealso seen in thevillages. Floorsare made frombamboo andwooden planks.

Houses aremade fromwood andmostlybamboo. Wallsof the housesare made ofsplit bamboowhich is givenadditionalcovering ofbanana stem(pseudostem ofMusa sp.)especially inwind proneareas. Roofsare mostlymade from toko

Similar toNyishis, but,Their housesare bigger insize.

Similar toNyishis.

Similar toNyishis.

52

Stairs aremostly made ofwood; cementand bambooare also seen.Houses arecompactlyarranged inneat rows andare attached toeach other.Villagegranaries areraised in thefield itself,away fromhouses.

patta (Livistonajenkinsiana).Floors aremade from splitbamboo. Atypical Nyishihousehold haslength 24–35 ft,breadth 18–20ft and height 6ft 10 inches,with a fireplaceof length 4 ft 8inches andbreadth 4 ftapproximately.They haveseparategranaries calledas ‘Neshu’.

Watermanagementandpurification

Watershedmanagementtechniquesexist foragriculturalpurposes.

Watermanagement isseen in areaspracticing someamounts of wetrice cultivation.

Watermanagementthroughdigging ofcanals is seenand recorded inthe terracecultivationareas.

_ _

Foodprocessingtechniques

Processingdone at home(fermentation,drying etc)

Similar Similar Similar Similar

‘Apung’preparationthroughfermentation

Prepared fromrice and millets(called marwa)

Similar Similar Similar Similar

Intensity ofJhumming

<10% 80-90% 70-80% >90% >90%

Wet ricecultivation

***** ** _ _ _

Agro forestry **** ** *** ** **Horticulture ***** ** *** ** **Bamboo ***** * ** * *

53

cultivationWaterharvesting

***** _ *** _ _

Soilmanagement

***** * *** * *

Fertilizerapplication

** ** ** * *

Vermi–composting

_ ** _ _ _

Mulching _ _ _ _ _Percentage ofpeople inagriculture

90% 70% 70% 80% 80%

Percentage ofpeople inagro–forestry

90% 30% 30% _ _

Percentage ofpeople inhunting

>5% >5% _ _ _

HuntingFor rituals ** * ** * *Forlivelihoods

* * * * *

For incomegeneration

** ** ** * *

Medicinalplantscultivation

** _ _ _ _

Medicinalplantscollection

** ** * * *

%age ofdependenceon forests fortraditional

10–20% <10% <10% <5% <5%

Forestsdependence

Food–5%Fodder–12%Fuel–40%Timber–38%Hunting–5%

Food–6%Fodder–11%Fuel–40%Timber–35%Hunting– 8%

Food–6%Fodder–12%Fuel–41%Timber–36%Hunting–5%

Similar toNyishis

Similar toNyishis

Conservationperspective

Sacred forestsare there andsome species of

Some speciesof plants suchas Ficus sp. are

Similar toNyishis

Similar toNyishis

Similar toNyishis

54

(Castanopsissp.) plants areconsideredsacred andbarred fromcutting them.Bamboo andpine gardensare maintainedfor householdas well as forcommercialpurpose.

consideredsacred andpeople areprohibited fromcutting them

Sacredspecies

Sacred groves(Ranthii) exist.Banyan tree(known asSaro-san) isconsideredsacred.

Ficus Sp.consideredsacred andpeople areprohibited fromcutting down it.

Ficus sp.Bamboo,Ekkam leaves

Ficus sp.Bamboo

Ficus sp.Bamboo

Any other income generation perspectiveHorticulture **** ** *** ** *Weaving ***** *** **** *** ***Medicinalplants

** * * _ _

Biodiesel - * - - -Name ofvillagecouncil

Buliang Bang Nyele Keba Kebang Gindu / GinduMonam

%ageadoption ofcustomarylaws

90% 90% 90% 90% 90%

* Presents rating on a five point scale

55

Table 4.8: Species composition of temperate/sub-alpine coniferous forestForest type Species composition FamilyTemperate/Sub alpine Conifers Abies densa Pinaceae

Ainsliaea spp. AsteraceaeAlnus nepalensis BetulaceaeAlpinia spp. ZingiberaceaeBerberis macrosepala BerberidaceaeBerberis wallichiana BerberidaceaePsychotria curviflora RubiaceaeCoriaria nepalensis CoriariaceaeCrassocephalum crepidioides AsteraceaeCyathea spinulosa CyatheaceaeCymbopogon intermedius PoaceaeElscotthzia blanda LamiaceaeGaultheria fragratissima EricaceaeHemiphragma heterophylum ScropulariaceaeIndigofera linifolia FabaceaeLycopodium clavatum LycopodiaceaeMyrsine semiserrata MyricinaceaeOenothera rosea OnagraceaePinus wallichiana PinaceaePleioblastus callosa PoaceaePotentilla polyphylla RosaceaePyrus griffithii RosaceaeQuercus lanata FagaceaeRubus gigantiflorus RosaceaeRubus pentagona RosaceaeRungia purviflora AcanthaceaeSaccharum sponteneum PoaceaeTaxus wallichiana TaxaceaeTsuga dumosa PinaceaeSkimmia anquetilla Rutaceae

Subtropical Pine Alnus Nepalensis BetulaceaeAnacardium spp. AnacardiaceaeBerberis wallichiana BerberidaceaeClerodendrum bracteatum VerbenaceaeCyathea sp. CyatheaeDesmodium tilliafilium FabaceaeElaeocarpus lanceaefolius ElaeocarpaceaeIndigofera linifolia FabaceaeLitsea glutinosa LauraceaeMaesa indica Myrsinaceae

56

Neolitsea spinulosa LauraceaePinus kesia PinaceaeRubís acuminate RosaceaeRubus ellipticus RosaceaeRubus kurzii RosaceaeRubus lasiocarpus RosaceaeSercospermum arboretum SapotaceaeSauraui roxburghii SaurauiaceaeaSmilax aspera LiliaceaeUrena lobata Malvaceae

Table 4.9: Protected area network in Arunachal Pradesh

Source: Kutty and Kothary (2001)

Name District Area (km2) Date of notificationBiosphere reserveDehang–Dibang Dibang Valley 5112 02.09.98National ParksNamdapha Changlang 1985 12.05.83Mouling East Siang 483 30.12.86Wildlife SanctuariesDibang Dibang Valley 4149 26.11.91Eagle Nest East Kameng 217 18.10.89Itanagar Papum Pare 140.30 14.06.78Kamlang Lohit 783 18.10.89Kane West Siang 55.00 17.09.91D’Ering East Siang 190 23.08.78Mehao Dibang Valley, Lohit 281.50 15.12.80Pakhui East Kameng 861.95 28.03.77Sessa West Kameng 100.00 18.10.89Tale Valley Lower Subansiri 337.00 14.07.95Yordi Rube Supse West Siang 491.61 NA

57

Fig 4.1. Altitudinal distribution of tribes in the Apatani mega–cultural Landscape

Nyishi Apatani Nyishi, Hill Miri Galo0

500

1000

1500

2000

Alti

tud

e (m

asl

)

Tribes