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Chapter 4
Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry
Section 4.1Water, the Common Solvent
Aqueous Solutions
W t i th di l iWater is the dissolving medium, or solvent.
Section 4.1Water, the Common Solvent
Some Properties of Water
Water is able to dissolve so many
substances because:
Water is “bent” or V shaped
105
H
‐ Water is “bent” or V‐shaped.
‐ The O‐H bonds are covalent.
‐ Water is a polar molecule.
‐ Hydration occurs when salts dissolve in water.
H
O2
105
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Section 4.1Water, the Common Solvent
A Solute
‐ dissolves in water (or other “solvent”)
‐ changes phase (if different from the solvent)so e )
‐ is present in lesser amount (if the same phase as the solvent)
Section 4.1Water, the Common Solvent
A Solvent
‐ retains its phase (if different from the solute))
‐ is present in greater amount (if the same phase as the solute)
Section 4.1Water, the Common SolventHow Ionic solids dissolve
H
H
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H
HH
Polar water molecules interact with the positiveand negative ions of a salt, assisting in the dissolving process. This process is called hydration.
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Section 4.1Water, the Common Solvent
One of the most important substances on Earth.
Can dissolve many
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Can dissolve many different substances.
A polar molecule because of its unequal charge distribution.
Section 4.1Water, the Common Solvent
Dissolution of a solid in a liquid
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Section 4.1Water, the Common Solvent
Solubility
The general rule for solubility is:
“Like dissolves like.”
Polar water molecules can dissolve other l l l h l h l dpolar molecules such as alcohol and,
also, ionic substances such as NaCl.
Nonpolar molecules can dissolve other nonpolar molecules but not polar or ionic substances. Gasoline can dissolve grease.
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Section 4.1Water, the Common SolventMiscibility
Miscible ‐‐ two substances that will mix together in any proportion to make a solution. Alcohol and water are miscible because they are both polarmiscible because they are both polar and form hydrogen bonds.
Immiscible ‐‐ two substances that will not dissolve in each other. Oil and vinegar are immiscible because oil is nonpolar and vinegar is polar.
Section 4.1Water, the Common Solvent
Solubility
How does the rule “Like dissolves like.” apply to cleaning paint brushes used for l i d h dlatex paint as opposed to those used with oil‐based paint?
Section 4.2The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
Nature of Aqueous Solutions
Solute – substance being dissolved.
Solvent – liquid water.
Electrolyte – substance that when dissolved in water d l i h d l i iproduces a solution that can conduct electricity.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance which, when dissolved in water, gives a nonconducting solution.
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Section 4.2The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
Electrolytes
Strong Electrolytes – conduct current very efficiently (bulb shines brightly). Completely ionized in water.
soluble salts, strong acids, and strong bases.
NaCl, KNO3, HNO3, NaOH
Weak Electrolytes – conduct only a small current (bulb glows dimly). A small degree of ionization in water.
weak acids and weak bases.
HC2H3O2, aq. NH3, tap H2O
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Section 4.2The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
Electrolytes
Nonelectrolytes – no current flows (bulb remains unlit). Dissolves but does not produce any ions.
Molecular substances
pure H2O, sugar solution, glycerol
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Section 4.2The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
Electrolyte behavior
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Section 4.2The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
04_1529
BaCl2(s)
Ionic Substance
= Ba2+
= Cl
2( )dissolves
When BaCl2 dissolves, the Ba2+ and Cl-
ions are randomly dispersed in the water. BaCl2 is a strong electrolyte.
Section 4.2The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
Acids
Strong acids ‐ dissociate completely (~100 %) to produce H+ in solution
HCl H SO HNO HB HI & HClOHCl, H2SO4, HNO3, HBr, HI, & HClO4
Weak acids ‐ dissociate to a slight extent (~ 1 %) to give H+ in solution
HC2H3O2, HCOOH, HNO2, & H2SO3
Section 4.2The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
04_1530
+
+
+
+ +
= H+
+
+
+ +
+
+
= Cl
+
HCl is completely ionized and is a strong electrolyte.
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Section 4.2The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
Bases
Strong bases ‐ react completely with water to give OH ions. sodium hydroxide
NaOH(s) ‐‐‐> Na+(aq) + OH
‐(aq)
Weak bases ‐ react only slightly with water to give OH ions. ammonia
NH3(aq) + HOH(l) <‐‐‐> NH4+(aq) + OH
‐(aq)
Section 4.2The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
04_1531
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
- = OH
= Na+
An aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide which isa strong bases dissociating almost 100 %.
Section 4.2The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
04_1532
Acetic acid(CH3COOH) exists in water mostly asexists in water mostly as undissociatedmolecules. Only a small percent of the molecules are ionized.
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Section 4.3The Composition of Solutions
Chemical Reactions of Solutions
We must know:
The nature of the reaction.
The amounts of chemicals present in the solutions The amounts of chemicals present in the solutions.
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Section 4.3The Composition of Solutions
Molarity
Molarity (M) = moles of solute per volume of solution in liters:
moles of soluteM l itM
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moles of solute = Molarity = liters of solution
M
6 moles of HCl3 HCl = 2 liters of solution
M
Section 4.3The Composition of Solutions
A 500.0‐g sample of potassium phosphate is dissolved in enough water to make 1.50 L of solution. What is
the molarity of the solution?
EXERCISE!EXERCISE!
y
1.57 M
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Section 4.3The Composition of Solutions
Concentration of Ions
For a 0.25 M CaCl2 solution:
CaCl2 → Ca2+ + 2Cl–
Ca2+: 1 × 0.25 M = 0.25 M Ca2+
Cl–: 2 × 0.25 M = 0.50 M Cl–.
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Section 4.3The Composition of Solutions
Which of the following solutions containsthe greatest number of ions?
CONCEPT CHECK!CONCEPT CHECK!
a) 400.0 mL of 0.10 M NaCl.
b) 300.0 mL of 0.10 M CaCl2.
c) 200.0 mL of 0.10 M FeCl3.
d) 800.0 mL of 0.10 M sucrose.
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Section 4.3The Composition of Solutions
Let’s Think About It
Where are we going?
To find the solution that contains the greatest number of moles of ions.number of moles of ions.
How do we get there?
Draw molecular level pictures showing each solution. Think about relative numbers of ions.
How many moles of each ion are in each solution?
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Section 4.3The Composition of Solutions
Notice
The solution with the greatest number of ions is not necessarily the one in which:
the volume of the solution is the largest.the volume of the solution is the largest.
the formula unit has the greatest number of ions.
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Section 4.3The Composition of Solutions
Dilution
The process of adding water to a concentrated or stock solution to achieve the molarity desired for a particular solution.solution.
Dilution with water does not alter the numbers of moles of solute present.
Moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution
M1V1 = M2V2
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Section 4.3The Composition of Solutions
A 0.50 M solution of sodium chloride in an open beaker sits on a lab bench. Which of the following would decrease the concentration of the salt solution?
CONCEPT CHECK!CONCEPT CHECK!
a) Add water to the solution.
b) Pour some of the solution down the sink drain.
c) Add more sodium chloride to the solution.
d) Let the solution sit out in the open air for a couple of days.
e) At least two of the above would decrease the concentration of the salt solution.
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Section 4.3The Composition of Solutions
What is the minimum volume of a 2.00 M NaOH solution needed to make 150.0 mL of a 0.800 MNaOH solution?
EXERCISE!EXERCISE!
60.0 mL
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Section 4.4Types of Chemical Reactions
Precipitation Reactions
Acid–Base Reactions
Often called a neutralization reaction Because the acid neutralizes the baseacid neutralizes the base.
Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
Ionic compounds are formed through the transfer of electrons.
The reaction involves the transfer of electrons.
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Section 4.5Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation Reaction
A double displacement reaction in which a solid forms and separates from the solution.
When ionic compounds dissolve in water, theWhen ionic compounds dissolve in water, the resulting solution contains the separated ions.
Precipitate – the solid that forms.
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If you’re not a part of the solution, your part of the precipitate
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Section 4.5Precipitation Reactions
The Reaction of K2CrO4(aq) and Ba(NO3)2(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + CrO42–(aq) → BaCrO4(s)
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Section 4.5Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation of Silver Chloride
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Section 4.5Precipitation Reactions
Precipitates
Soluble – solid dissolves in solution; (aq) is used in reaction equation.
Insoluble – solid does not dissolve in solution; (s) is usedInsoluble solid does not dissolve in solution; (s) is used in reaction equation.
Insoluble and slightly soluble are often used interchangeably.
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Section 4.5Precipitation Reactions
Simple Rules for Solubility
1. Most nitrate (NO3) salts are soluble.
2. Most alkali metal (group 1A) salts and NH4+ are soluble.
3. Most Cl, Br, and I salts are soluble (except Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+).
4. Most sulfate salts are soluble (except BaSO4, PbSO4, Hg2SO4, CaSO4).
5. Most OH are only slightly soluble (NaOH, KOH are soluble, Ba(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 are marginally soluble).
6. Most S2, CO32, CrO4
2, PO43 salts are only slightly soluble,
except for those containing the cations in Rule 2.
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Section 4.5Precipitation Reactions
Which of the following ions form compounds with Pb2+ that are generally soluble in water?
CONCEPT CHECK!CONCEPT CHECK!
a) S2–
b) Cl–
c) NO3–
d) SO42–
e) Na+
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Section 4.6Describing Reactions in Solution
Formula Equation (Molecular Equation)
Gives the overall reaction stoichiometry but not necessarily the actual forms of the reactants and products in solution.p
Reactants and products generally shown as compounds.
Use solubility rules to determine which compounds are aqueous and which compounds are solids.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
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Section 4.6Describing Reactions in Solution
Complete Ionic Equation
All substances that are strong electrolytes are represented as ions.
Ag+(aq) + NO (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl(aq)Ag (aq) + NO3 (aq) + Na (aq) + Cl (aq)
AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3(aq)
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Section 4.6Describing Reactions in Solution
Net Ionic Equation
Includes only those solution components undergoing a change.
Show only components that actually react.
Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq) AgCl(s)
Spectator ions are not included (ions that do not participate directly in the reaction).
Na+ and NO3 are spectator ions.
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Section 4.6Describing Reactions in Solution
Write the correct formula equation, complete ionic equation, and net ionic equation for the reaction between cobalt(II) chloride and sodium hydroxide.
Formula Equation:
CONCEPT CHECK!CONCEPT CHECK!
q
CoCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)
Co(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Complete Ionic Equation:
Co2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH(aq)
Co(OH)2(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)
Net Ionic Equation:
Co2+(aq) + 2OH(aq)
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Section 4.7Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions
Solving Stoichiometry Problems for Reactions in Solution
1. Identify the species present in the combined solution, and determine what reaction occurs.
2 Write the balanced net ionic equation for the2. Write the balanced net ionic equation for the reaction.
3. Calculate the moles of reactants.
4. Determine which reactant is limiting.
5. Calculate the moles of product(s), as required.
6. Convert to grams or other units, as required.
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Section 4.7Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions
10.0 mL of a 0.30 M sodium phosphate solution reacts with 20.0 mL of a 0.20 M lead(II) nitrate solution (assume no volume change).
(Part I)CONCEPT CHECK!CONCEPT CHECK!
g
What precipitate will form?
lead(II) phosphate, Pb3(PO4)2
What mass of precipitate will form?
1.1 g Pb3(PO4)2
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Section 4.7Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions
Let’s Think About It
Where are we going? To find the mass of solid Pb3(PO4)2 formed.
How do we get there?How do we get there? What are the ions present in the combined solution?
What is the balanced net ionic equation for the reaction?
What are the moles of reactants present in the solution?
Which reactant is limiting?
What moles of Pb3(PO4)2 will be formed?
What mass of Pb3(PO4)2 will be formed?
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Section 4.7Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions
10.0 mL of a 0.30 M sodium phosphate solution reacts with 20.0 mL of a 0.20 M lead(II) nitrate solution (assume no volume change).
(Part II)CONCEPT CHECK!CONCEPT CHECK!
g
What is the concentration of nitrate ions left in solution after the reaction is complete?
0.27 M
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Section 4.7Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions
Let’s Think About It
Where are we going?
To find the concentration of nitrate ions left in solution after the reaction is complete.
How do we get there?
What are the moles of nitrate ions present in the combined solution?
What is the total volume of the combined solution?
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Section 4.7Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions
10.0 mL of a 0.30 M sodium phosphate solution reacts with 20.0 mL of a 0.20 M lead(II) nitrate solution (assume no volume change).
(Part III)CONCEPT CHECK!CONCEPT CHECK!
g
What is the concentration of phosphate ionsleft in solution after the reaction is complete?
0.011 M
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Section 4.7Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions
Let’s Think About It
Where are we going?
To find the concentration of phosphate ions left in solution after the reaction is complete.
Ho do e get there? How do we get there?
What are the moles of phosphate ions present in the solution at the start of the reaction?
How many moles of phosphate ions were used up in the reaction to make the solid Pb3(PO4)2?
How many moles of phosphate ions are left over after the reaction is complete?
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Section 4.8Acid‐Base Reactions
Acid–Base Reactions (Brønsted–Lowry)
Acid—proton donor
Base—proton acceptor
What is the net ionic equation for the reaction of HCl(aq)What is the net ionic equation for the reaction of HCl(aq) and KOH(aq)?
Acid + Base salt + water
For a strong acid and base reaction:
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) H2O(l)
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Section 4.8Acid‐Base Reactions
Neutralization of a Strong Acid by a Strong Base
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Section 4.8Acid‐Base Reactions
Performing Calculations for Acid–Base Reactions
1. List the species present in the combined solution before any reaction occurs, and decide what reaction will occur.
2. Write the balanced net ionic equation for this reaction.
3. Calculate moles of reactants.
4. Determine the limiting reactant, where appropriate.
5. Calculate the moles of the required reactant or product.
6. Convert to grams or volume (of solution), as required.
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Section 4.8Acid‐Base Reactions
Acid–Base Titrations
Titration – delivery of a measured volume of a solution of known concentration (the titrant) into a solution containing the substance being analyzed (the analyte).
Equivalence point – enough titrant added to react exactly with the analyte.
Endpoint – the indicator changes color so you can tell the equivalence point has been reached.
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Section 4.8Acid‐Base Reactions
For the titration of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), how many moles of sodium hydroxide would be required to react with 1.00 L of
CONCEPT CHECK!CONCEPT CHECK!
y q0.500 M sulfuric acid to reach the endpoint?
1.00 mol NaOH
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Section 4.8Acid‐Base Reactions
Let’s Think About It
Where are we going?
To find the moles of NaOH required for the reaction.
How do we get there?
What are the ions present in the combined solution? What is the reaction?
What is the balanced net ionic equation for the reaction?
What are the moles of H+ present in the solution?
How much OH– is required to react with all of the H+ present?
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Section 4.9Oxidation‐Reduction Reactions
Redox Reactions
Reactions in which one or more electrons are transferred.
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Section 4.9Oxidation‐Reduction Reactions
Reaction of Sodium and Chlorine
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Section 4.9Oxidation‐Reduction Reactions
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States
1. Oxidation state of an atom in an element = 0
2. Oxidation state of monatomic ion = charge of the ion
3. Oxygen = 2 in covalent compounds (except in peroxides where it = 1)
4. Hydrogen = +1 in covalent compounds
5. Fluorine = 1 in compounds
6. Sum of oxidation states = 0 in compounds
7. Sum of oxidation states = charge of the ion in ions
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Section 4.9Oxidation‐Reduction Reactions
Find the oxidation states for each of the elements in each of the following compounds:
EXERCISE!EXERCISE!
K2Cr2O7
CO32‐
MnO2
PCl5 SF4
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K = +1; Cr = +6; O = –2
C = +4; O = –2
Mn = +4; O = –2
P = +5; Cl = –1
S = +4; F = –1
Section 4.9Oxidation‐Reduction Reactions
Redox Characteristics
Transfer of electrons
Transfer may occur to form ions
Oxidation – increase in oxidation state (loss of Oxidation – increase in oxidation state (loss of electrons); reducing agent
Reduction – decrease in oxidation state (gain of electrons); oxidizing agent
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Section 4.9Oxidation‐Reduction Reactions
Which of the following are oxidation‐reduction reactions? Identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.
CONCEPT CHECK!CONCEPT CHECK!
g g
a)Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
b)Cr2O72‐(aq) + 2OH‐(aq) 2CrO4
2‐(aq) + H2O(l)
c)2CuCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
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Section 4.10Balancing Oxidation‐Reduction Equations
Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions by Oxidation States
1. Write the unbalanced equation.
2. Determine the oxidation states of all atoms in the reactants and products.reactants and products.
3. Show electrons gained and lost using “tie lines.”
4. Use coefficients to equalize the electrons gained and lost.
5. Balance the rest of the equation by inspection.
6. Add appropriate states.
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Section 4.10Balancing Oxidation‐Reduction Equations
Balance the reaction between solid zinc and aqueous hydrochloric acid to produce aqueous zinc(II) chloride and hydrogen gas.y g g
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Section 4.10Balancing Oxidation‐Reduction Equations
1. What is the unbalanced equation?
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2(g)
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Section 4.10Balancing Oxidation‐Reduction Equations
2. What are the oxidation states for each atom?
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2(g)0 +1 –1 +2 –1 0
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Section 4.10Balancing Oxidation‐Reduction Equations
3. How are electrons gained and lost?
1 e– gained (each atom)
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2(g)0 +1 –1 +2 –1 0
2 e– lost
The oxidation state of chlorine remains unchanged.
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Section 4.10Balancing Oxidation‐Reduction Equations
4. What coefficients are needed to equalize the electrons gained and lost?
1 e– gained (each atom) × 2
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2(g)0 +1 –1 +2 –1 0
2 e– lost
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2(g)
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Section 4.10Balancing Oxidation‐Reduction Equations
5. What coefficients are needed to balance the remaining elements?
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) + H2(g)
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