CHAPTER 4shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/2032/11/11_chapter 4.pdf · type of universe,...

Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….

CHAPTER 4

WITHIN A NATION - SURVEY OF SELECT PUBLIC OPINION

FROM IRANIAN NATIONALS

4-1. METHODOLOGY OF THE SURVEY

As mentioned in the first chapter, in order to enhance the

research and in addition to the main question of the research

the following questions were mentioned which have been

examined by the opinion survey:

1- What is the elite attitude towards corruption in Iran?

2- When has corruption reached dangerous proportions for

the country?

3- How is the issue of tolerance with regard to corruption,

i.e. willingness to pay bribe?

4- What is the elite attitude about the issue of corruption in

the public sector?

5- What is the elite opinion about the main factors behind

corruption in the country?

6- What is the elite opinion about the major political and

socio-economic consequences of corruption in Iran?

7- What is the elite opinion about the main ways of

preventing corruption in Iran?

In the following, methodology of the conducted opinion

survey, and the results have been explained in detail.

4-1-1. Sampling Procedures

In every research work, the data is collected through two

approaches namely census (in which all the units of the

Chapter Four

96

population are studied) and sample (in which a part of the

population are studied). Generally the most desirable way to

collect data is by sampling approach that is addressed with the

type of universe, sample unit, sample frame, size of the sample

and sampling techniques. The type of universe might be finite

(in which the number of items are limited, like the number of

Iranian students in India) or infinite (as the number of stars in

the sky).

The sampling unit refers to an element in a sample. The

sampling frame that is also called a source list refers to all units

in a universe. The size of the sample refers to selected units of

population that should neither be excessively large, nor too

small, and generally it must be optimum. The size of the sample

depends to some factors like size of the population, the nature

of the population and kind of study. The sampling technique is

divided into two techniques namely probability and non-

probability.

According to Kothari (1990)1, the probability sampling

technique is the technique that every unit of the universe has an

equal chance to be a member of the sample. The non-

probability sampling technique is also known by different name

such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling, and

judgement sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the

sample are selected deliberately by the researcher. In the other

words, under the non-probability sampling the organizers of the

enquiry purposively choose particular units of the universe for

constituting a sample as representative of the whole.

1 -C. R. Kothari. “Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques”, Second edition, New Delhi: New

Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers, 1990, p. 59&60.


97

Therefore, the most emphasis of this study is on non-

probability technique which includes convenience sampling and

purposive sampling which have been utilized in the study.

However, the primary data through questionnaire have been

collected from Iranian post-graduate and Ph.D. students in

India, who were available and willing to share and provide their

information, opinions, views and attitudes with researcher.

4-1-2. Population

In the research, two types namely population and sample

are related to each other. The population is the total collection

of elements and the sample is part of such population that is

selected according to statistical methods. There are two

important sampling methods namely probability sampling

technique and non-probability sampling technique. Emphasis of

this research is on non-probability technique. Population for this

research is the Iranian post-graduate and Ph.D. students in Idia.

The reasons behind this selection are as follows:

1. The issue of corruption is still a taboo in Iran. Thus, filling any

questionnaire and conducting any opinion survey about

corruption is not an easy task to be dealt with. Students out of

the country are more willing to share their information,

opinions, views and attitudes freely with researcher. Thus,

using the sample out of the country increases the validity and

reliability of the study.

2. Since the present respondents are out of the country, i.e. in

India for at least two years, the media had less influence on

them in connection to corruption. Therefore their responses

are more valid and reliable for the present research.

Chapter Four

98

3. The population of post-graduate and Ph.D. students who are

usually in touch with both society and public sector as citizens

of Iran, are more reliable to be the sample for the present

research.

Consequently, 158 Iranian post-graduate and Ph.D.

students were selected as sample of the universe through the

non-probability method to be the respondents of the

questionnaire.

4-1-3. Structure of the questionnaire

The questionnaire (Appendix 2) which is utilized in the

research is subdivided into four main parts: a) data about

respondents b) general assessment of corruption phenomenon

in the country c) general attitude about the issue of corruption

in the public sector d) expectation towards curbing the

corruption.

a) Data about respondent: The questionnaire asks for

general characteristics of the interviewees. These questions

aim to capture a brief detailed picture of the person who is

answering in the questionnaire.

b) General assessment of corruption: This part includes

questions on public perception of corruption, public

perception about major causes and consequences and

propensity towards it.

Public Perception of corruption: How acute is this problem in

the country; when has it reached dangerous proportions for the

society; how dangerous is corruption in comparison with the

other factors impeding the development of the country.


99

Evaluation of the level of public tolerance of corruption and

the propensity to corruption: The interviewees were asked how

they would feel giving and accepting a bribe.

Assessing the public opinion about the major causes and

consequences of corruption in the country.

c) General attitude about the issue of corruption in the

public sector: Interviewees were asked to assess how

corruption is likely to occur in this sector; point out the main

forms of corrupt behaviour, and, assess the main measures

to curb corruption in the public sector.

d) Expectation towards curbing the corruption: Interviewees

were asked if they thought that corruption might be attacked

in Iran, and to what degree it could be possible.

It is also mentionable that the questions No. 4, 6, and 11

of the questionnaire assess the first question of the research,

question No. 7 evaluates the second question of the research,

questions No. 10, 12 and 13 assess the third question of the

research, questions No. 8, 9, 14, 15, 16 and 19 evaluating the

forth question of the research, question No. 5 assesses the fifth

question of the research, question No. 18 evaluates the sixth

question of research and question No. 17 is devoted to seventh

question of the research.

4-1-4. Analysis of the data

Analysing the data is the next step after collecting the

primary and secondary data for the research work. The aim of

analysing the data is to answer the questions of the research for

arriving at a proper conclusion. In this stage the collected data

should be processed and analysed. The processing stage

Chapter Four

100

includes the editing, coding, classification and tabulation of the

collected data ready to analysis. The analysing stage includes

interpretation of the findings through statistical methods. For

this study, the descriptive and analytical methods have been

applied.


101

4-2. RESULTS OF THE SURVEY

This section summarises the results of the questionnaire.

The graphs and tables show the distribution of the respondents

regarding every question.

4-2-1. Characteristics of respondents

4-2-1-1. Gender of respondents: In the total number of

respondents, men make up 80.4 percent and women 19.6

percent which will be showed in the following table and graph.

Table 4-1: Gender of Respondents

Gender Frequency Percent

Male 127 80.4

Female 31 19.6

Total 158 100

Figure 4-1 : Gender of Respondents

19.6%

80.4%

Male

Female

Chapter Four

102

4-2-1-2. Student status of respondents: In the total

number of respondents, 39.2 percent are Ph.D. students and

60.8 percent are studying in post-graduate level.

Table 4-2: Student status of Respondents

Student Status Frequency Percent

Ph.D. 62 39.2

Master 96 60.8

Total 158 100

Figure 4-2: Student Status of Respondents

60.8%

39.2%

Ph.D.Master

4-2-1-3. Age of respondents: Age of respondents that

have been classified in the groups of 20-30, 30-40 and above

40 are as follows: 51.2% of respondents are between 20-30,

43.8% are between 30-40 and 5% have above 40 years old.

Figure 4-3: Age of Respondents

5%

51.2%

43.8%

0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00%

20-30

30-40

>40

Ag

e

%


103

4-2-2. Perception of corruption

The questions numbered 4,6,7 and 11 of the questionnaire

have been devoted to evaluate of public perception of corruption

in Iran. In the following the results will be discussed.

4-2-2-1. Question 4 of the questionnaire asks to evaluate

the acuteness of given problem in the country according to the

following scales: (1- not a problem, 2- it sometimes makes

problems, 3- impedes, 4- impedes much, 5- impedes greatly,

6- it blocks).

The results show that the most acute problems are the

following ones: Unemployment obviously ranks first place (the

average is 5.63). Second place belongs to corruption (the

average is 5.41). Third place belongs to frequent changes in

laws and regulations (the average is 5.01). 81% of respondents

marked unemployment with most extreme mark-6, as being

very acute. At the same time, 76% characterise corruption as

being one of the most acute problems. Table 4-3 shows the

factors and average marks given by respondents:

Table 4-3: Results of the question No. 4 of the questionnaire

Factors AVERAGE MARK

1. Inflation 4.73

2. Decreased quality of education services 4.51

3. Decreased quality of health care services 3.97

4. Unemployment 5.63

5. Crime 4.20

6. Corruption 5.41

7. High taxes 3.66

8. Political instability 3.54

9. Poverty 3.1

10. Poor public services 4.15

11. Bureaucracy 4.98

12. Frequent changes in laws and regulations 5.01

Chapter Four

104

4-2-2-2. Question 6 asks the respondents to evaluate the

problem of corruption in the country on a scale of 6 (where 1

means that it is not acute at all, 2- it is acute only to a low

extent, 3- it seldom causes problem, 4- it often causes

problem, 5- it is acute, 6- it is very acute). 49.3% rank

corruption from the position of “making problems often”. 7.6%

have said it is not acute at all and 6.96% have evaluated it is

very acute. Table 4-4 and figure 4-4 show the details:

Table 4-4: Results of question No. 6

Frequency Percent

It is not acute at all 12 7.6

It is acute only to a low extend 8 5.06

It makes problems seldom 27 17.08

It often makes problem 78 49.3

It is acute 22 13.91

It is very acute 11 6.96

Total 158 100

7.6%5.06%

17.08%

49.3 %

13.91%

6.96%

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

%

Not acute

at all

Acute only

to a low

extend

Makes

problems

seldom

Of ten

makes

problem

It is acute It is

v ery acute

Figure 4-4


105

4-2-2-3. Regarding the public perception of corruption,

question number 7 of the questionnaire asks the interviewees

when in your opinion has corruption reached dangerous

proportions for the society? Here most of the respondents

(56.3%) mentioned about 15 years period which refers to the

reconstruction era after Iran – Iraq war. During this period, the

Socio-economic Development Plans started in Iran. 27.2% of

respondents have considered that corruption reached dangerous

proportion for the society 10 years ago, 12% have selected the

6 years ago and 4.5% have considered the 3 years ago. Table

4-5 and figure 4-5 show the details:

Table 4-5: Results of the question No. 7

Indicators Frequency Percent

3 years ago 7 4.5

6 years ago 19 12

10 years ago 43 27.2

Other (indicate) 89 56.3

Total 158 100

4.5%

12%

27.2 %

56.3 %

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

3 years ago 6 years ago 10 years

ago

other

(indicate)

Figure 4-5

Chapter Four

106

4-2-2-4. Question No. 11 of questionnaire also refers to

the public perception of corruption in the country. It asks the

respondents to imagine a low paid official, who is approached

by someone offering cash, gift or a favour to solve his

problem, what would he do? In answering this question 35.4%

believed that he would not accept, if this cause problems. Only

12% believed that he would accept, because all do that. 19%

answered that he would not accept, because he does not

approve this. Table 4-6 and figure 4-6 show the details:

Table 4-6: Results of the question No. 11


He would accept, because all do 19 12.1

He would accept, because this could help the person offering the bribe

41 25.9

He would not accept, if this cause problems 56 35.4

He would not accept, because he does not approve this

31 19.6

Do not know 11 7

Total 158 100

12.1%

25.9%

35.4%

19.6%

7%

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

%

Yes, because all do

that

Yes, because

this could help

the bribing

person

No, if this could

cause proble

No, because

he does not

approve it

Do not know

Figure 4-6


107

4-2-3. Tolerance of and a propensity towards corruption

The questions numbered 10, 12 and 13 of the

questionnaire have assessed the public tolerance of and a

propensity towards corruption in the country. Questions and

results are as follows:

4-2-3-1. In question 10 interviewees have been asked to

imagine someone who has extended cash or gift to an official

has obtained what he wanted. How, in your view, is this

citizen most likely to feel? In answering this question, 36.7% of

respondents have positive feeling about offering bribe, while

62% have negative feeling about it. Table 4-7 and figure 4-7

show the results in details:



Angry 41 25.9

Humiliated 57 36.1

Fairly well 25 15.8

Satisfied 19 12

Glad 14 8.9

Missing 2 1.3

Total 158 100

25.9 %

36.1 %

15.8 %12%

8.9%

1.3%

0.00%5.00%

10.00%15.00%20.00%25.00%30.00%35.00%40.00%

Ang

ry

Hum

iliat

ed

Fairly

well

Satisfie

dGlad

Missing

Figure 4-7

Chapter Four

108

4-2-3-2. Question 12 in order to measure the propensity

towards corruption in the country asks respondents: if asked to

pay a bribe, will you pay it? Here the question is very direct.

So, only 11.4% respondents answered unambiguously “Yes”,

and 30.4% “No”. For 58.2% answer was “It depends on the

situation”. This answer is another way of saying that they

probably would pay a bribe. Table 4-8 and figure 4-8 show the

details:


Frequency Percent

Yes 18 11.4

No 48 30.4

Depends 92 58.2

Total 158 100

Figure 4-8

No

30.4%

Yes

11.4%

It depends

58.2%


109

4-2-3-3. Question 13 of the questionnaire assesses the

opinion about the results of paying bribe. This question asks

respondents: Do you think paying bribe will “ease” your life?

Results show that respondents are not optimistic about the

results of paying bribes and prefer not to pay it. Table 4-9 and

figure 4-9 show the details of the results:


Frequency Percent

Yes 31 19.6

No 127 80.4

Total 158 100

Figure 4-9

No

80.4%

Yes

19.6%

Chapter Four

110

4-2-4. Perception of corruption in public sector

Questions numbered 8,9,14,15,16 and 19 of the

questionnaire have considered the proliferation of corruption in

the country. The questions and their results are as following:

4-2-4-1. Question 8 asks the interviewees that when you

have to contact officials in the public sector, is it easier to

bypass the official ways and solve your problem via

“unofficial” way? In answer of this question, 46.8% of

respondents considered that some times it is possible to bypass

the official ways and solve the problem via “unofficial” way,

22.2% have selected often, 13.3% have answered to „in the

majority of time‟, 9.5% have considered the „seldom‟, 5% have

said „every time‟ and 3.2% have answered „never‟. Table 4-10

and figure 4-10 show the details:



Every time 8 5

In the majority of time 21 13.3

Often 35 22.2

Some time 74 46.8

Seldom 15 9.5

Never 5 3.2

Total 158 100

5%

13.3%

22.2%

46.8%

9.5%3.2%

0%5%

10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%

Every

tim

e

In m

ajorit

y of

cas

es

Ofte

n

Somet

imes

Seldo

m

Nev

er

Figure 4-10


111

4-2-4-2. Question number 9 of the questionnaire refers to

the main forms of “informal relations” in the public sector and

asks respondents to indicate the main unofficial ways of

solving problems with public officials among the following

ways: (1- Contacts, 2- Gifts, 3- Money, 4- Pressure from the

side of top management). Here, 68.4% of respondents believe

that „contacts‟ are the main form of „unofficial ways‟ of solving

the problems in the country. This shows that the use of contacts

(friends, relatives and third parties) is more frequent in the

public sector. However, this is not the only one, but other

instruments are also used. Table 4-11 and figure 4-11 show the

details:



Contacts 108 68.4

Gifts 17 10.6

Money 12 7.6

Pressure of top

managers

21 13.4

Total 158 100

Figure 4-11

Pressure from

top managers

13.4%Money

7.6%

Gifts

10.6%

Contacts

68.4%

Chapter Four

112

4-2-4-3. Question 14 of the questionnaire assesses the

extent of corruption in the public sector. It asks the respondents

to evaluate on a scale of 6 (following), how corruption is

extended in the public sector? (1- there is no corruption

there, 2- it takes place very seldom, 3- it happens sometimes,

4- it happens frequently, 5- very often, 6- always). In response

to this question, 41.2% have selected the option 3. They believe

that corruption happens sometimes in the public sector. 6.3%

are believed that there is no corruption there and 5.7% have

evaluated always. Table 4-12 and figure 4-12 show the details:



There is no corruption there 10 6.3

It takes place very seldom 25 15.8

It happens sometimes 65 41.2

It happens frequently 29 18.4

Very often 20 12.6

Always 9 5.7

Total 158 100

6.3%

15.8%

41.2%

18.2%

12.6%

5.7%

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

%

No

corruption

is there

Takes

place very

seldom

Happens

sometimes

Happens

frequentl

Very often Always

Figure 4-12


113

4-2-4-4. Question 15 also evaluates the spreading of

corruption in the public sector. This question asks interviewees

to assess on a scale of 6, how likely is, when using the public

services, the use of unofficial money, gifts and personal

contacts? (1- Always, 2- Most of time, 3- Frequently, 4-

Sometimes, 5- Seldom, 6- Never). 48% of respondents believe

that in using the public service they sometimes use the

mentioned informal ways. 7% say that it always takes place.

4.4% believed that the using of informal ways never happen.

Table 4-13 and figure 4-13 show the details:



Always 11 7

Most of time 20 12.7

Frequently 31 19.6

Sometimes 76 48.1

Seldom 10 6.3

Never 7 4.4

Missing Answer 3 1.9

Total 158 100

7%

12.7%

19.6%

48.1%

6.3%4.4%

1.9%

05

101520253035404550

%

Alway

s

Mos

t of t

imes

Frequ

ently

Somet

imes

Seldo

mNev

er

Missing

Figure 4-13

Chapter Four

114

4-2-4-5. Question 16 of the questionnaire asks the

respondents: have you ever had to use money, presents, or

contacts to solve a problem in the public sector? The question

here is very direct, so it is difficult to expect a lot of sincerity

from the respondents. 78.5% of the respondents have said no

to the question, while 21.5% have answered yes. Table 4-14

and figure 4-14 show the details:


Frequency Percent

Yes 124 78.5

No 34 21.5

Total 158 100

Figure 4-14

No

78.5%

Yes

21.5%


115

4-2-4-6. The purpose of question 19 is to evaluate the

expectations with regards to the possibility of root out

corruption in Iran. This question asks the respondents: In view

of corruption in the public sector in Iran, which of the

following statements are the closer to what you think? Results

show that opinion regarding the possibility of dealing with

corruption in Iran is not pessimistic. 62% of the respondents

believe that corruption can be substantially reduced in the

country. 9.5% say that corruption proliferation cannot be

eliminated, and 7.6% believe that corruption can be completely

eradicated. Table 4-15 and figure 4-15 show the details:


Frequency Percent

Corruption proliferation cannot be eliminated 15 9.5

It can be limited to a degree 28 17.7

Corruption can be substantially reduced 98 62

Corruption can be completely eradicated 12 7.6

Do not know 5 3.2

Total 158 100

9.5%17.7%

62%

7.6%3.2%

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

%

Corruption

proliferation

cannot be

eliminated

in Iran

Corruption will

always be here,

yet it can be

limited to a degree

Corruption

can be

substantially

reduced

Corruption

can be completely

eradicated

Do not know

Figure 4-15

Chapter Four

116

4-2-5. Factors behind corruption in Iran

Question 5 of the questionnaire assesses the important

factors behind corruption. In this connection it asks respondents

to evaluate the possible causes of corruption in the country on

a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 corresponds to “least important”

and 5 corresponds to “very important”.

According to opinion poll, the main cause of corruption is

lack of independent and efficient media with an average mark of

4.83. Lack of people‟s trust in officials has got an average of

3.21 mark as the least important factor. Table 4-16 shows the

results in details:


4-2-6. Effects of corruption

Factors behind corruption

Average Mark

1. General cultural traditions 3.52

2. Lack of culture and traditions of accountable civil services 4.25

3. Lack of political will and public will to oppose corruption 4.68

4. Low salary of public officials 4.32

5. Lack of trust among people and officials 3.21

6. Lack of transparent procedures 4.08

7. Lack of independent and effective Judiciary 4.30

8. Lack of independent and efficient media 4.83

9. Public officials are too greedy 3.41

10. Crisis in ethics values 3.91

11. Discretionary power of public officials 4.15

12. Lack of administrative control 4.56

13. The penalties are mild and rewards great 4.72

14. Risks of corruption are low 4.69

15. Weakness of laws and regulations to fight corruption 4.25


117

Question 18 of the questionnaire evaluates the negative

consequences of corruption. In this line, it asks interviewees:

how acute are the negative effects of corruption on the

political and socio economic affairs on a scale of 6 as follows?

(1- it has not effect at all, 2- its effect is low, 3- impedes, 4-

impedes a lot, 5- impedes very much, 6- it blocks).

Respondents consider poverty with an average mark of 5.57

which is more being affected by corruption and civil society with

3.1 which is less being affected by corruption. Figure 4-16

shows the other details:

Figure 4-16

4.24.33

5.01 4.97

5.57

4.74.52

3.54

4.17

3.64

4.124.31

4.43

3.1

4.19

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Polit

ical sta

bility

Legitim

acy o

f govern

ment

Econom

ic g

row

th

Fore

ign d

irect

investm

ent

Povert

y

Privatisation

Polit

ical develo

pm

ent

Hum

an r

ights

Qualit

y o

f govern

ance

Qualit

y o

f goods a

nd s

erv

ices

Resourc

e a

llocation

Polit

ical part

icip

ation

Civ

il socie

ty

Accounta

bility

and t

ranspare

ncy

Polit

ical com

petition

Av

era

ge M

ark

s

4-2-7. Remedial and preventive measures of corruption

Chapter Four

118

Question 17 of the questionnaire is to assess the

important remedial and preventive measures of corruption in

Iran. In this connection a list of measures was given to the

interviewees to evaluate them on a scale of 6 where 1 was not

efficient and 6 was very efficient. “Downsizing the government,

reduction of staff in public sector and decentralisation of the

government” as a measure received the maximum average

mark (5.41). „Financing the political parties by government‟

received the minimum average mark (4.1). However, the

average marks for all measures are close to each other and

show that all are important for reducing corruption in the

country. Table 4-17 shows the details:


4-3. SUMMARY

Measures Average Marks

1. Increasing financial suport from the government to public servants 4.30

2. Downsizing the government, reduction the staff in public sector and decentralisation of the government

5.41

3. Strengthening controling over public servants 5.07

4. Conducting anti-corruption propaganda campaigns in society 4.32

5. Increasing the risks of corruption 5.32

6. Financing the political parties by government 4.10

7. Promote strong coordination among governments, the private sector and civil society

4.55

8. Establishing an efficient social security system in the country 5.35

9. Utilizing the information technology in the administrative system 5.17

10. Establishing an indepentnt organisation for fighting corruption 5.21


119

In this chapter the collected data by questionnaire have

been analysed and related tables and graphs have provided

results.

Results of the survey show that corruption is the second

biggest problem in the country after unemployment. Survey

shows that 41.2% of the respondents believed that corruption

takes place sometimes in the public sector. 6.3% believed that

there is no corruption there.

According to the survey, main cause of corruption is lack

of an independent and efficient media. Therefore, this can be

concluded that existing a strong and free press can be helpful to

reduce corruption in the society. Survey also reveals that

downsizing the government; reduction of staff in public sector

and decentralisation of the government can be the most

important remedial and preventive measures against corruption

in Iran.

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