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Chapter 5 Choice Under Uncertainty
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Chapter 5
Choice Under Uncertainty
Choice Under Uncertainty
Chapter 5 Slide 2
Topics to be Discussed
Describing Risk
Preferences Toward Risk
Reducing Risk
The Demand for Risky Assets
Chapter 5 Slide 3
Introduction
Choice with certainty is reasonably straightforward.
How do we choose when certain variables such as income and prices are uncertain (i.e. making choices with risk)?
Chapter 5 Slide 4
Describing Risk
To measure risk we must know:
1) All of the possible outcomes.
2) The likelihood that each outcome will occur (its probability).
Chapter 5 Slide 5
Describing Risk
Interpreting ProbabilityThe likelihood that a given outcome will
occur
Chapter 5 Slide 6
Describing Risk
Interpreting ProbabilityObjective Interpretation
Based on the observed frequency of past events
Chapter 5 Slide 7
Describing Risk
Interpreting ProbabilitySubjective
Based on perception or experience with or without an observed frequency
Different information or different abilities to process the same information can influence the subjective probability
Chapter 5 Slide 8
Describing Risk
Expected ValueThe weighted average of the payoffs or
values resulting from all possible outcomes.The probabilities of each outcome are
used as weightsExpected value measures the central
tendency; the payoff or value expected on average
Chapter 5 Slide 9
Describing Risk
An ExampleInvestment in offshore drilling exploration:
Two outcomes are possibleSuccess -- the stock price increase from
$30 to $40/shareFailure -- the stock price falls from $30
to $20/share
Chapter 5 Slide 10
Describing Risk
An ExampleObjective Probability
100 explorations, 25 successes and 75 failures
Probability (Pr) of success = 1/4 and the probability of failure = 3/4
Chapter 5 Slide 11
Describing Risk
An Example:
e))($20/sharPr(failuree))($40/sharPr(success EV
)($20/share43)($40/share41 EV
$25/share EV
Expected Value (EV)Expected Value (EV)
Chapter 5 Slide 12
Describing Risk
Given:
n possible outcomes having payoffs X1, X2,
…, Xn
Probabilities of each outcome is given by Pr1, Pr2,…, Prn
Chapter 5 Slide 13
Describing Risk
Generally, expected value is written as:
nn2211 XPr...XPrXPr E(X)
Chapter 5 Slide 14
Describing Risk
Variability
The extent to which possible outcomes of an uncertain event may differ
Chapter 5 Slide 15
Describing Risk
A ScenarioSuppose you are choosing between two
part-time sales jobs that have the same expected income ($1,500)
The first job is based entirely on commission.
The second is a salaried position.
VariabilityVariability
Chapter 5 Slide 16
Describing Risk
A ScenarioThere are two equally likely outcomes in the
first job--$2,000 for a good sales job and $1,000 for a modestly successful one.
The second pays $1,510 most of the time (.99 probability), but you will earn $510 if the company goes out of business (.01 probability).
VariabilityVariability
Chapter 5 Slide 17
Income from Sales Jobs
Job 1: Commission .5 2000 .5 1000 1500
Job 2: Fixed salary .99 1510 .01 510 1500
ExpectedProbability Income ($) Probability Income ($) Income
Outcome 1 Outcome 2
Describing Risk
Chapter 5 Slide 18
1500$ .5($1000).5($2000))E(X1
Job 1 Expected Income
$1500.01($510).99($1510) )E(X2
Job 2 Expected Income
Income from Sales Jobs
Describing Risk
Chapter 5 Slide 19
While the expected values are the same, the variability is not.
Greater variability from expected values signals greater risk.
Deviation
Difference between expected payoff and actual payoff
Describing Risk
Chapter 5 Slide 20
Deviations from Expected Income ($)
Job 1 $2,000 $500 $1,000 -$500
Job 2 1,510 10 510 -900
Outcome 1 Deviation Outcome 2 Deviation
Describing Risk
Chapter 5 Slide 21
Adjusting for negative numbers
The standard deviation measures the square root of the average of the squares of the deviations of the payoffs associated with each outcome from their expected value.
VariabilityVariability
Describing Risk
Chapter 5 Slide 22
Describing Risk
The standard deviation is written:
VariabilityVariability
2222
11 )(Pr)(Pr XEXXEX
Chapter 5 Slide 23
Calculating Variance ($)
Job 1 $2,000 $250,000 $1,000 $250,000 $250,000 $500.00
Job 2 1,510 100 510 980,100 9,900 99.50
Deviation Deviation Deviation Standard Outcome 1 Squared Outcome 2 Squared Squared Deviation
Describing Risk
Chapter 5 Slide 24
Describing Risk
The standard deviations of the two jobs are:
50.99
900,9$
00).01($980,1.99($100)
500
000,250$
0.5($250,000).5($250,00
2
2
2
1
1
1
*Greater Risk
Chapter 5 Slide 25
Describing Risk
The standard deviation can be used when there are many outcomes instead of only two.
Chapter 5 Slide 26
Describing Risk
Job 1: expected income $1,600 and a standard deviation of $500.
Job 2: expected income of $1,500 and a standard deviation of $99.50
Which job?Greater value or less risk?
Decision MakingDecision Making
Chapter 5 Slide 27
Preferences Toward Risk
Choosing Among Risky AlternativesAssume
Consumption of a single commodityThe consumer knows all probabilitiesPayoffs measured in terms of utilityUtility function given
Chapter 5 Slide 28
Preferences Toward Risk
A person is earning $15,000 and receiving 13 units of utility from the job.
She is considering a new, but risky job.
ExampleExample
Chapter 5 Slide 29
Preferences Toward Risk
She has a .50 chance of increasing her income to $30,000 and a .50 chance of decreasing her income to $10,000.
She will evaluate the position by calculating the expected value (utility) of the resulting income.
ExampleExample
Chapter 5 Slide 30
Preferences Toward Risk
The expected utility of the new position is the sum of the utilities associated with all her possible incomes weighted by the probability that each income will occur.
ExampleExample
Chapter 5 Slide 31
Preferences Toward Risk
The expected utility can be written:E(u) = (1/2)u($10,000) + (1/2)u($30,000)
= 0.5(10) + 0.5(18)
= 14
E(u) of new job is 14 which is greater than the current utility of 13 and therefore preferred.
ExampleExample
Chapter 5 Slide 32
Preferences Toward Risk
Different Preferences Toward RiskPeople can be risk averse, risk neutral, or
risk loving.
Chapter 5 Slide 33
Preferences Toward Risk
Different Preferences Toward RiskRisk Averse: A person who prefers a certain
given income to a risky income with the same expected value.
A person is considered risk averse if they have a diminishing marginal utility of income
The use of insurance demonstrates risk aversive behavior.
Chapter 5 Slide 34
Preferences Toward Risk
A ScenarioA person can have a $20,000 job with
100% probability and receive a utility level of 16.
The person could have a job with a .5 chance of earning $30,000 and a .5 chance of earning $10,000.
Risk AverseRisk Averse
Chapter 5 Slide 35
Preferences Toward Risk
Expected Income = (0.5)($30,000) +
(0.5)
($10,000) =
$20,000
Risk AverseRisk Averse
Chapter 5 Slide 36
Preferences Toward Risk
Expected income from both jobs is the same -- risk averse may choose current job
Risk AverseRisk Averse
Chapter 5 Slide 37
Preferences Toward Risk
The expected utility from the new job is found:
E(u) = (1/2)u ($10,000) + (1/2)u($30,000)
E(u) = (0.5)(10) + (0.5)(18) = 14
E(u) of Job 1 is 16 which is greater than
the E(u) of Job 2 which is 14.
Risk AverseRisk Averse
Chapter 5 Slide 38
Preferences Toward Risk
This individual would keep their present job since it provides them with more utility than the risky job.
They are said to be risk averse.
Risk AverseRisk Averse
Chapter 5 Slide 39
Income ($1,000)
Utility The consumer is riskaverse because she
would prefer a certainincome of $20,000 to a
gamble with a .5 probabilityof $10,000 and a .5
probability of $30,000.
E
10
10 15 20
1314
16
18
0 16 30
AB
C
D
Risk AverseRisk Averse
Preferences Toward Risk
Chapter 5 Slide 40
Preferences Toward Risk
A person is said to be risk neutral if they show no preference between a certain income, and an uncertain one with the same expected value.
Risk NeutralRisk Neutral
Chapter 5 Slide 41
Income ($1,000)10 20
Utility
0 30
6A
E
C
12
18
The consumer is riskneutral and is indifferentbetween certain eventsand uncertain events
with the same expected income.
Preferences Toward Risk
Risk NeutralRisk Neutral
Chapter 5 Slide 42
Preferences Toward Risk
A person is said to be risk loving if they show a preference toward an uncertain income over a certain income with the same expected value.Examples: Gambling, some criminal
activity
Risk LovingRisk Loving
Chapter 5 Slide 43
Income ($1,000)
Utility
0
3
10 20 30
A
E
C8
18The consumer is riskloving because she
would prefer the gamble to a certain income.
Preferences Toward Risk
Risk LovingRisk Loving
Chapter 5 Slide 44
Preferences Toward Risk
The risk premium is the amount of money that a risk-averse person would pay to avoid taking a risk.
Risk PremiumRisk Premium
Chapter 5 Slide 45
Preferences Toward Risk
A ScenarioThe person has a .5 probability of earning
$30,000 and a .5 probability of earning $10,000 (expected income = $20,000).
The expected utility of these two outcomes can be found:
E(u) = .5(18) + .5(10) = 14
Risk PremiumRisk Premium
Chapter 5 Slide 46
Preferences Toward Risk
Question
How much would the person pay to avoid risk?
Risk PremiumRisk Premium
Chapter 5 Slide 47
Income ($1,000)
Utility
0 10 16
Here , the risk premiumis $4,000 because a
certain income of $16,000gives the person the same
expected utility as the uncertain income thathas an expected value
of $20,000.
10
18
30 40
20
14
A
CE
G
20
F
Risk Premium
Preferences Toward Risk
Risk PremiumRisk Premium
Chapter 5 Slide 48
Preferences Toward Risk
Variability in potential payoffs increase the risk premium.
Example:A job has a .5 probability of paying $40,000
(utility of 20) and a .5 chance of paying 0 (utility of 0).
Risk Aversion and IncomeRisk Aversion and Income
Chapter 5 Slide 49
Preferences Toward Risk
Example:The expected income is still $20,000, but
the expected utility falls to 10.
Expected utility = .5u($) + .5u($40,000)
= 0 + .5(20) = 10
Risk Aversion and IncomeRisk Aversion and Income
Chapter 5 Slide 50
Preferences Toward Risk
Example:The certain income of $20,000 has a utility
of 16.
If the person is required to take the new position, their utility will fall by 6.
Risk Aversion and IncomeRisk Aversion and Income
Chapter 5 Slide 51
Preferences Toward Risk
Example:The risk premium is $10,000 (i.e. they
would be willing to give up $10,000 of the $20,000 and have the same E(u) as the risky job.
Risk Aversion and IncomeRisk Aversion and Income
Chapter 5 Slide 52
Preferences Toward Risk
Therefore, it can be said that the greater the variability, the greater the risk premium.
Risk Aversion and IncomeRisk Aversion and Income
Chapter 5 Slide 53
Preferences Toward Risk
Combinations of expected income & standard deviation of income that yield the same utility
Indifference CurveIndifference Curve
Chapter 5 Slide 54
Risk Aversion andIndifference Curves
Standard Deviation of Income
ExpectedIncome
Highly Risk Averse:Anincrease in standarddeviation requires a large increase in income to maintainsatisfaction.
U1
U2
U3
Chapter 5 Slide 55
Risk Aversion andIndifference Curves
Standard Deviation of Income
ExpectedIncome
Slightly Risk Averse:A large increase in standarddeviation requires only a small increase in incometo maintain satisfaction.
U1
U2
U3
Chapter 5 Slide 56
Reducing Risk
Three ways consumers attempt to reduce risk are:
1) Diversification
2) Insurance
3) Obtaining more information
Chapter 5 Slide 57
Assets
Something that provides a flow of money or services to its owner.
The flow of money or services can be explicit (dividends) or implicit (capital gain).
The Demand for Risky Assets
Chapter 5 Slide 58
Capital Gain
An increase in the value of an asset, while a decrease is a capital loss.
The Demand for Risky Assets
Chapter 5 Slide 59
The Demand for Risky Assets
Risky Asset
Provides an uncertain flow of money or services to its owner.
Examplesapartment rent, capital gains, corporate
bonds, stock prices
Risky & Riskless AssetsRisky & Riskless Assets
Chapter 5 Slide 60
The Demand for Risky Assets
Riskless Asset
Provides a flow of money or services that is known with certainty.
Examplesshort-term government bonds, short-
term certificates of deposit
Risky & Riskless AssetsRisky & Riskless Assets
Chapter 5 Slide 61
The Demand for Risky Assets
Asset ReturnsReturn on an Asset
The total monetary flow of an asset as a fraction of its price.
Real Return of an AssetThe simple (or nominal) return less the
rate of inflation.
Chapter 5 Slide 62
The Demand for Risky Assets
Asset Returns
Price Purchase
FlowMonetary Return Asset
%10$1,000
$100/yr.
Price Bond
Flow Return Asset
Chapter 5 Slide 63
The Demand for Risky Assets
Expected Return
Return that an asset should earn on average
Expected vs. Actual ReturnsExpected vs. Actual Returns
Chapter 5 Slide 64
The Demand for Risky Assets
Actual Return
Return that an asset earns
Expected vs. Actual ReturnsExpected vs. Actual Returns
Chapter 5 Slide 65
Investments--Risk and Return (1926-1999)
Common stocks (S&P 500) 9.5 20.2
Long-term corporate bonds 2.7 8.3
U.S. Treasury bills 0.6 3.2
RiskReal Rate of (standardReturn (%) deviation,%)
Chapter 5 Slide 66
The Demand for Risky Assets
Higher returns are associated with greater risk.
The risk-averse investor must balance risk relative to return
Expected vs. Actual ReturnsExpected vs. Actual Returns
Chapter 5 Slide 67
Investing in the Stock Market
ObservationsPercent of American families who had
directly or indirectly invested in the stock market
1989 = 32%1995 = 41%
Chapter 5 Slide 68
Summary
Consumers and managers frequently make decisions in which there is uncertainty about the future.
Consumers and investors are concerned about the expected value and the variability of uncertain outcomes.
Chapter 5 Slide 69
Summary
Facing uncertain choices, consumers maximize their expected utility, and average of the utility associated with each outcome, with the associated probabilities serving as weights.
A person may be risk averse, risk neutral or risk loving.
Chapter 5 Slide 70
Summary
The maximum amount of money that a risk-averse person would pay to avoid risk is the risk premium.
Risk can be reduced by diversification, purchasing insurance, and obtaining additional information.
End of Chapter 5
Choice Under Uncertainty
Choice Under Uncertainty
