Chapter 5

Dynamics and Relevance of Appropriate Technology: A Macro-Level Analysis of Water Management Systems in Kerala

"Andluttli water; w ma& dliGt~&eings"

(The Koran-qura 33, verse 7)

The objective of the present chapter is to present the dynamics and relevance of water

resource management practices in Kerala. The chapter is divided into three parts. Part

1 gives a profile of the water resource endowment of Kerala, apart from putting

together global concerns on the issue of water management. Part I1 is a qualitative

analysis of the problem of water scarcity in the State from the perspective of

sustainable development. Part 111 describes the approaches in management of water

resource management. The chapter ends with a critical reflection of the water

scarcity and management at the macro-level.

5.1 An Introduction To Water Scenario I n Kerala

Water is the major constituent of living matter. From 50 to 90 per cent of the weight

of living organisms is water. Protoplasm, the basic material of living cells, consists of

a solution of fats in water, carbohydrates, proteins, salts, and similar chemicals.

Water acts as a solvent, transporting, combining, and chemically brealung down these

substances. Blood in animals and sap in plants consist largely of water and helps

transportation of food and removal of waste materials. Water also plays a key role in

the metabolic breakdown of essential molecules like proteins and carbohydrates. This

process, called hydrolysis, goes on continuously in living cells.

Abundant as water may appear to be, we also have a new appreciation for how little

tieshwater is on the earth. Fresh water constitutes 3 percent of world water resources

and most of this is found in the ground, ice caps, and glaciers. Lakes and rivers

account for only 0.014 percent of aggregate water resources. Although enough

precipitation falls each year on the land surface of the earth to cover the United States

to a depth of IS feet or to fill all lakes, rivers, and reservoirs fifty times over, about

two-thirds of this evaporates back into the atmosphere, and more than half of what

remains flows unused to the sea. Annual rainfall is subject to high variation; the same

area can experience droughts one year and floods the next. Withdrawals and the cost

of recovery vary widely, as does the quality of water sources.

Indeed, water is critically scarce in many places. Generally, a country or region will

experience periodic water stress when supplies fall below 1,700 cubic meters per

person per year. I'he global average annual supply of renewable freshwater is about

7,400 cubic meters per person per year. However, twenty-two countries have

renewable water resources of less than 1,000 cubic meters per person, and eighteen

have more than 2,000. By and large Latin America is best endowed, whle the Middle

East and North Africa is having critical water scarcity. "By 2025, as many as fifty-two

countries inhabited by some 3 billion people will be plagued by water stress or

chronic water scarcity. India, now the world's second most populated country, will

experience chronic water shortages nation wide. China will narrowly miss the water

stress benchmark. However, in many areas of the country, such as the North China

Plain, the demand for water is already outstripping supply".'

5.1.1 Need and Use of Water: Global Concerns

Water is needed in all facets of life. The general objective is to make certain that

adequate supplies of water of good quality are maintained for the entire population of

this planet, while preserving the hydrological, biological and chemical functions of

ecosystems, adapting human activities within the capacity limits of nature and

combating vectors of water-related diseases. Innovative technologies, including the

improvement of indigenous technologies, are needed to fully utilize limited water

resources and to safeguard those resources against pollution.

The widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and aggravated pollution of freshwater

resources, in many parts of world along with the progressive growth of incompatible

activities, demand integrated water resource planning and management. Such

integration must cover all types of interrelated freshwater bodies, including both

surface water and groundwater, and duly consider water quantity and quality aspects.

The multi-sectoral nature of water resources development in the context of socio-

economic development must be recognized, as well as the multi-interest utilization of

water resources for water supply and sanitation, agriculture, industry, urban

development, hydropower generation, inland fisheries, transportation, recreation, low

and flat lands management and other activities. Rational water utilization schemes for

the development of surface and underground water-supply sources and other potential

sources have to be supported by concurrent water conservation and wastage

minimization measures. Priority, however, must be accorded to flood prevention and

control measures, as well as sedimentation control, wherever required.

Agenda 21: A report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development (Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro has proposed the following

programme areas for the management of freshwater sector?

(a) Integrated water resources development and management;

(b) Water resources assessment;

(c) Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic ecosystems;

(d) Drinking-water supply and sanitation;

(e) Water and sustainable urban development;

(f) Water for sustainable food production and rural development;

(g) Impacts of climate change on water resources.

All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and through bilateral

or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and other relevant

organizations as appropriate, could implement the following activities:

(a) Water-supply and sanitation for the unserved rural poor:

(a) Establish national policies and budget priorities with regard to increasing service

coverage;

@) Promote appropriate technologies;

(c) Introduce suitable cost-recovery mechanisms, taking into account efficiency and

equity through demand management mechanisms;

(d) Promote community ownership and rights to water-supply and sanitation

facilities;

(e) Establish monitoring and evaluation systems;

(0 Strengthen the rural water-supply and sanitation sector with emphasis on

institutional development, efficient management and an appropriate framework

for financing of services;

(g) Increase hygiene education and eliminate disease transmission foci;

(h) Adopt appropriate technologies for water treatment;

(i) Adopt wide-scale environmental management measures to control disease

vectors;

(b) Water-use efficiency

1) Increase of efficiency and productivity in agricultural water use for better

utilization of limited water resources;

2) Strengthen water and soil management research under imgation and rain-fed

conltions;

3) Monitor and evaluate irrigation project performance to ensure, inter alia, the

optimal utilization and proper maintenance of the project;

4) Support water-users groups with a view to improving management performance at

the local level;

5) Support the appropriate use of relatively brackish water for imgation;

(c) Water logging, salinity control and drainage:

1 ) Introduce surface drainage in rain-fed agriculture to prevent temporary water

logging and flooding of lowlands;

2) Introduce artificial drainage in irrigated and rain-fed agriculture;

3) Encourage conjunctive use of surface and groundwater, including monitoring and

water-balance stules;

4) Practice drainage in irrigated areas of arid and semi-arid regions;

(d) Water-quality management

1. Establish and operate cost-effective water-quality monitoring systems for

agricultural water uses;

2. Prevent adverse effects of agricultural activities on water-quality for other social

and economic activities and on wetlands, inter alia, through optimal use of on-

farm input and the minimization of the use of external input in agricultural

activities;

3. Establish biological, physical and chemical water-quality criteria for agricultural

water-users and for marine and riverine ecosystems;

4. Minimize soil run-off and sedimentation;

5. Dispose properly of sewage from human settlements and of manure produced by

intensive livestock breeding;

6 . Minimize adverse effects from agricultural chemicals by use of integrated pest

management;

7. Educate communities about the,pollution-related impacts of the use of fertilizers

and chemicals on water-quality, food safety and human health;

(e) Water resources development programmes

1) Develop small-scale irrigation and water-supply for humans and livestock and for

water and soil conservation;

2) Formulate large-scale and long-term irrigation development programmes, taking

into account their effects on the local level, the economy and the environment;

3) Promote Local initiatives for the integrated development and management of water

resources;

4) Provide adequate technical advice and support and enhancement of institutional

collaboration at the local community level;

5 ) Promote a farming approach for land and water management that takes account of

the level of education, the capacity to mobilize local communities and the

ecosystem requirements of arid and semi-arid regions;

6) Plan and develop multi-purpose hydroelectric power schemes, making sure that

environmental concerns are duly taken into account;

(f) Scarce water resources management

1) Develop long-term strategies and practical implementation programmes for

agricultural water use under scarcity conditions with competing demands for

water;

2) Recognize water as a social, economic and strategic good in irrigation planning

and management;

3) Formulate specialized programmes focused on drought preparedness, with

emphasis on food scarcity and environmental safeguards;

4) Promote and enhance waste-water reuse in agriculture;

(g) Water-supply for livestock

1) Improve quality of water available to livestock, taking into account their tolerance

limits;

2) Increase the quantity of water sources available to livestock, in particular those in

extensive grazing systems, in order to both reduce the distance needed to travel

for water and to prevent overgrazing around water sources;

3) Prevent contamination of water sources with animal excrement in order to prevent

the spread of diseases, in particular zoonosis;

4) Encourage multiple use of water-supplies through promotion of integrated agro-

livestock-fishery systems;

5) Encourage water spreadmg schemes for increasing water retention of extensive

grasslands to stimulate forage production and prevent run-off;

(h) Inland fisheries

1) Develop the sustainable management of fisheries as part of national water

resources planning;

2) Study specific aspects of the hydrobiology and environmental requirements of key

inland fish species in relation to varying water regimes;

3) Prevent or mitigate modification of aquatic environments by other users or

rehabilitate environments subjected to such modification on behalf of the

sustainable use and conservation of biological diversity of living aquatic

resources;

4) Develop and disseminate environmentally sound water resources development

and management methodologies for the intensification of fish yield from inland

waters;

5) Establish and maintain adequate systems for the collection and interpretation of

data on water quality and quantity and channel morphology related to the state

and management of living aquatic resources, including fisheries;

(i) Aquaculture development

1) Develop environmentally sound aquaculture technologies that are compatible with

local, regional and national water resources management plans and take into

consideration social factors;

2) Introduce appropriate aquacult&e techniques and related water development and

management practices in countries not yet experienced in aquaculture;

3) Assess environmental impacts of aquaculture with specific reference to

commercialised culture units and potential water pollution from processing

centres;

4) Evaluate economic feasibility of aquaculture in relation to alternative use of

water, taking into consideration the use of marginal-quality water and investment

and operational requirements.

Water is one of the most precious gifts of nature. Life and civilizations had taken

birth and shape in and around water. Its manifold use includes production of food

and fibre, energy production, improvement of health, industrial development and so

on. Use of water can be hvided broadly into the following:3 (1) domestic; (2)

agricultural; (3) industrial; and (4) power generation.

In fact, the societal advantage of water, its capacity of being exploited as a useful

commodity for the varied needs of people makes it a critical resource. Agriculture

occupies a predominant position in water use. Imgated agriculture accounts for

around seventy per cent of the total world use of fresh water. Domestic and

municipal water needs accounts for around seven per cent of the total withdrawals

although the proportion is higher in most developed countries. For instance, it is

estimated that domestic and municipal water need, will account for sixteen percent of

withdrawals in Europe by the year A. D. 2000. India also faces similar situation. "In

India, in 1974, imgation used about ninety-two per cent of all the water consumed in

the country. Domestic and industrial uses accounted for the remaining eight per

cent".4

5.1.2 Origin of Water and the Hydrological Cycle

The origin of water in our planet is not clear. The current thinking on the origin of

water is that "primordial earth had no oceans, and perhaps very little atmosphere. It

is believed that the volatile constituents, trapped within the earth's interior, lealung to

the surface through volcanic eruptions, intensive rock movement and hot springs,

condensed to form the oceans and the atmosphere. Water evaporates from the oceans

due to solar heat to form clouds that float around the gaseous form or in liquid droplet

The gigantic hydrological cycle is the movement of water fiom sea to atmosphere and

land and vice versa under the influence of solar heat. Considering earth as a whole,

the quantity of water involved in the process is same and it is this water cycle that

makes the earth live. Of the total available water it is estimated that 97.3 per cent is

contained in the oceans in the form not eminently suitable for &rect use of mankind.

Of the remai~ng 2.7 per cent most of it is frozen into polar ice caps and snow. An

estimated 0.1 per cent is only available as fresh water underground in rivers, streams

etc. that supports all life on the planet. Table 5.1 shows the global water availability.

Table 5.1 Global water availability

Surface area Volume Total No. Source (in sq. km.) (in km.) percentage

(%) 1 Surface water

a) Freshwater lakes 8,54,700 1,25,045 0.009

b) Saltwater lakes 6,99,300 10,42,045 0.008

c) hver and streams 1,250 0.001

2 Ground water

a) Ground water available 129,500,000 4,168,180 0.31

with % mile depth

b) Ground water available 129,500,000 4,168,180 0.31

more than % mile depth

c) Soil moisture etc. 129,500,000 66,691 0.005

3 Ice-caps and snow 17,871,000 29,177,260 2.15

4 Atmospheric water 510,230,000 12,921 0.001

5 Sea water 361,305,000 1,321,3 13,060 97.2

Source: Handbookfor Peoples Planning Campaign, 1996.

5.1.3 Kerala: A profile

Kerala, the panoramic south-west comer of the Indian peninsula, lies in between

8"18' and 12" 48' north latitude and 74" 52' and 77" 22' east longtude. Though one

of the smallest states in India geographical area of 38863 sq. km., which forms only

1.18% of the area of Indian union, supports a population of 29.0 millions. This

narrow strip of land, 30 to 130 km wide likes between Westem Ghats, on the east and

Arabian Sea on the west, with 590 km of the coastline. In the south, the state shares a

boundary with Tamil Nadu and in the North, with Karnataka

Figure 5.1 Natural Regions of Kerala

Midland 8-75

L --

Source: Kerala State Land Use Board

5.1.3.1 Physical indices of the State

Area - 38863 sq. km

Per capita land availability - 0.13 hectares

Total population - 290.99 lakhs (1991 Census)

Area under forest - 10.82 lakhs hectares

Per capita forest area - 0.037 hectares (1992-93)

Density of population - 749 per sq. km.

Male population - 142.89 lakhs

Female population - 148.10 lakhs

Sex ratio - females per 1000 males - 136 No.

Literacy -- 89.81%

Urban population - 76.80 lakhs (26.4%)

Rural population - 214.18 lakhs (73.6%)

5.1.3.2 Natural regions

Physiographically, Kerala state is divided into three natural zones.

Natural regions Area (sq. km.) Percentage

Low land (less than 75 m above MSL) 3,979.3 10.24

Mid land (75 m above MSL) 16,231.2 41.76

High land (above 75 m ofMSL) 18,653.5 48.00

Source: Land Resources of Kerala State, 1995

These zones form parallel belts running across the length of the state from north to

south. The width of the state varies from 15 - 120 k.m. The undulating topography

ranges from below the means sea level to 2694 n above the means sea level. Figure

5.1 shows the natural regions of Kerala.

5.1.3.3 Geology and soil types

Soils of the state are mainly composed of crystalline rocks, and mainly climate,

geology, relief, and other biotic interactions have influenced its formation. Lterites

cover wide areas in Kerala. All along the midland region, it forms a residual deposit

due to weathering of either crystalline or sedlmentiuy rocks. The thickness of laterite

generally varies from 5 m to 8 m. Plateau laterites of greater thickness are seen in

Malappuram, Kozhikode and Kantiur Districts. Lateritic soil is predominant in the

Midland region. The texture of surface soil of Kerala covers a wide range from sandy

to clay

A major part of Kerala being hilly, with an undulating terrain, a wide range of slop

classes is found. The relative distribution of the different slop classes in the State is

shown in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Slow Classification of Kerala No. Type Description Per cent

1 0-1% Slope Level to nearly level 13

2 1-3% Slope Very gentle sloping 24

3 3-5% Slope Gently sloping 13

4 5-10% Slope Moderately sloping 19

5 10- 15Y0 Slope Moderately steeply sloping 20

6 15-30% Slope Steeply sloping 2

7 Above 30% Slope Very steeply sloping 8

Source: Kerala State Resource BasedPerspecfive Plan A. D. 2020, 1997.

The depth of the soil also varies considerably in different regions. Four soil depth

class associations are identified in Kerala, which are shown in Table 5.3

Figure 5.2 Climate and Temperature of different climatic Zones in Kerala

- - 1. ' t i - . . ~ ,

L ?,> ... , .I. .~~

-. . - . . . 7 . .

, 8 . ,.. 11 :.I SCALE

\ ,g7=:&O 4:r- %.y I-

\ \ \ \

-, - $, <a +- K A R N A T A K A

7 \

I.,"""

1 Valat . ,'\,

<,.-.

,L - r' .<,

I' r'

< < . . - - p>

i \ (

\ Paikkod '

'-Ji .H.\OVKIIP SEA 4

\ ? 3

...

5 , . , IC..'..;..:.] .. + Nokarachal ,...,

;I..,. . I j Punkaf . I l 7, 1 - I

r

.... ..........

Sengulom ... -..-' * . - 7 , <

f +

I

Source: Kerala State Land Use Board

'I ' . / ~ , \,

, r:. - . >" \ 1 , ..........I -- - .~L!::.,

'1 '*' \ -

1

hiv,vnanfiqDu\.-. .d ~,. r-' .., !

/4

Table 5.3 Depth of Soil in Kerala No. Description Size Per cent

1 Moderately shallow 50-75 cm 2

2 Moderately deep 75-100 cm 2

3 Deep 100-150 cm 25

4 Very deep 150 cm and above 64

Source: Land Resources ofKerala State, 1995

The drainage capacity of the soil is good across the state. About 82% of the area of

Kerala has moderately-well-drained to well-drained soils

5.1.3.4 Temperature and sunshine

The mean annual temperature in the state varies from 25.4"C to 31.0°C in the central

parts of Kerala. In the major portion of the midland areas the mean temperature is

around 27.5"C. In the high lands the temperature may come down to 15'C. The state

is getting bright sunlight during winter (ten hours per day) but during south west

monsoon sunshine hours are less than four hours per day. Figure 5.2 depicts the

climate and temperature pattern of the State.

5.1.3.5 Demographic Profile

The state of Kerala has supported a population of 63.96 lakhs in the beginning of this

millennium (1901) and had a steady growth in population. In 1961 the figure was

169.04 lakh and in 1971 it increased to 213.47 lakhs. According to 1991 census the

population has reached 290.98 lakhs with an urban population of 76.80 lakh and rural

population of 214.18 lakh. The projected population in 2000 AD is 328.23 lakh. The

literacy rate in the state is highest in the country and it is approximately 100%. The

female to male ratio in the state is also highest in the country. The state is better

placed in temls of other development indices. The state also has the highest density,

high unemployment level and a large number of people migrating outside. There are

40 lakh unemployment people registered in the employment exchanges in 199 1. The

unemployment figure is 3 times the national average. 1.1% of the total population

belongs to scheduled tribes.

5.1.3.6 Land Utilization

The total geographical area of 38.85 lakh hectares of this, 10.81 hectares, which

constitutes 27.86% of the total area, is under forest. The land available for cultivation

is 23.38 lakh hectares. Land use pattern based on the figures 90-91 published by the

Directorate of Economies and Statistics, Government of Kerala is given in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4 Land utilisation pattern in Kerala (area in 00 hectares) 1 No. 1 Area I

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9

5.1.3.7 Operational land holdings

Land holding pattern in Kerala is very peculiar with other states, 5016079 marginal

holdings are there which constitutes 92.56% of the total operational land holdings in

the state. Out of the marginal holdings 99.03% are individual hol&ngs. T h s

marginalization of land holdings can negatively affect the water resource

Total geographical area Forest Land put to non-agricultural uses Barren and uncultivable land Permanent pastures and grazing land Land under miscellaneous tree crops not included in net area

10 11 12

management in the state. Many of the conservation practices will be unviable in such

38,855 10,815 2,974

583 19

394 sown Cultivable waste Fallow land other than current fallow Current fallow

946 264 442

Source: Keralu Economic Review. 1996.

Wet area sown Area sown more than once Total cropped area

22,468 7,732

30,200

srnallholdings. Table 5.5 shows the number and size of operational land holdings in

Kerala.

Source: Kerala Economic Review, 1996.

The district-wise data shows that the highest number of operational holdings can be

seen at Tbmvananthapuram district. Around 12% of the total holdings at

Tluruvananthapuram has an area between 10, 6, 7, 73 hectares. The district wise

number and area of the total operational holdings are given in the Table 5.6.

Table 5.6 District wise distribution of land holdings in Kerala

No. District Number %to total Area (ha) % to total

~ ~ ~- ~- ~-

I Thiruvananthapuram 6,28,868 11.60 1,06,773 5.93

3 Pathanamthitta 2,49,967 4.61 89,791 4.98

5 Kottayam 3,48,017 6.42 1,46,533 8.13

7 Emakulam 5,16,296 9.53 1,26,072 7.00

9 Palawtad 4,34,439 8.02 1,86,730 10.36

10 Malappuram 4,62,603 8.51 1,40,266 7.78

11 Kozhlkode 4,62,603 8.54 1,35,415 6.96

12 Wayanad 1,31,736 2.43 1,00,952 5.60

13 Kannur 3,69,200 6.82 1,66,62 1 9.25

14 Kasargcde 1,71,599 3.17 1,02,768 5.70

State 54,19,189 100.00 18,01,823 100.00

Source: Kerula Economic Review, 1996.

The geographic and agro-climatic characteristics of this state permit dense and

diverse vegetation. The state had a good percentage of primeval rain forests.

Whatever little piece of land used for cultivation also supported enough diversity as

the rain forests. Hardly any cultivable land was left fallow. This pattern was described

by Ihn Battutta as early as the fourteenth century: "Mulaybar, which is the pepper

country, extends for two months journey along the coast . . . there is not a foot ground

but what is cultivated every man has his own orchard, with his house in the middle

and a wooden palisade round it'"

Whether consciously incorporated or not, there was a high level of diversity in the

Kerala farms. The precipitation, soil structure, terrain and various other features also

favoured evergreen vegetation without human beings caring much for it. Most of the

farming systems developed over time apparently imitated natural forests and they,

therefore were stable, resilient and sustainable.

5.1.3.8 Agro climatic zones of Kerala

The state is divided into thirteen agro-climatic zones based on rainfall, soil types,

elevation and vegetation. Most of these zones fall into the midlands categoly and the

terrain is generally undulating. On an average, almost all of these zones receive in

excess of 300 cms of rain per annum. The Table 5.7 below explains the different

agro-climatic zones of Kerala. Figure 5.3 shows the ago-climatic re@ons of the state.

Table: 5.7 Agro-climatic regions of Kerala

Figure 5.3 Agro-Climatic Zones of Kerala

/, 4

Kasorogod 4- 4

T'

9 -F 0 t V

TAMILNADU

v

athanarnthitta

Northern zone Southern zone Thiruvananthapuram Central zone

High atti-ude zone

Onattukaro --,

TAMILNADU

Kutfonad Kole Problem area zone

Pokkali Low rainfall

th i t ta

Source: Kerala State Land Use Board

Figure 5.4 River Basins of Kerala

Source Kerala State Land Use Board

Figure 5.5 Ground water provinces of Kerala

1.3.9 Water Resources of Kerala

The State is blessed with two monsoon spells: South West monsoon spread over June

to September which is more important as far as the agriculture is concerned, followed

by North East monsoon &om ~ c t b b e r to November. Together, the State receives

around 300 cm precipitation spread over 120 days. This facilitates the perennial flow

of 44 rivers running from East to West to the Arabian Sea, and three to the east, all

charged by rain. It also accounts for evergreen-ness of the vegetative cover spread all

over the State. The low lands of Kerala are abundantly blessed with lakes, estuaries

and backwaters. In the midlands also, there are a large number of small to medium

sized water bodies

5.1.3.9a Surface water

Surface water resource constitutes fresh water resources of the rivers, reservoirs,

ponds, tanks and braclush water resources of brackish water lakes, backwaters and

estuaries. Various inland water resources of Kerala are shown in Table 5.8. Figure

5.4 shows the river basins of Kerala.

Table 5.8 Inland water resources of Kerala - - - - -

Type of resource Estimated area Percentage share No. (Hectare) of total

1 Freshwater resources

a) River 85,000 23.58

b) Reservoirs 26,635 8.2 1

C) Ponds and tanks 3,300 0.92

2 Brackish water resources

a) Braclush water lakes 2,42,600 67.29

Backwaters and estuaries

Total 3,60,535 100.00

Source: Land Resources of Kerala State, 1995.

The total catchment areas of all the forty-four rivers flowing through Kerala are

42,978 sq. km. 'The annual yield of the rivers is estimated to be 78041 million cubic

meters and of whlch 70323 million cubic meters is available in Kerala.

5.1.3.9b Ground water

The assessment of ground water resource is rather difficult. The systematic

hydrological studies show that the state is very rich in ground water resource and

there is a scope for its potential development. It is estimated that the state of Kerala

is having 7899.88 million cubic meters of utilizable ground water for irrigation and

total ground water rechargeable per year is 7900.28 million cubic meters. The district

level ground water potential is given in Table 5. It is seen that Palakkad district is

much higher among other states for its utilizable ground water and rechargeable

ground water and it is 752.77 and 885.59 million cubic meters receptively. The

ground water potential of Kerala - district wise - is gven in Table 5.9. Figure 5.5

shows the ground water provinces of Kerala.

Table 5.9 Ground water potential of Kerala-District-wise details

(in million cubic metres)

No. Name of the district Total GW Utilizable GW for recharge per year irrigation per year

1 Thiruvananthapuram

2 Kollam

3 Pathanamthitta

6 Idukki

7 Emakulam

8 Thnssur

9 Palakkad

10 Malappurarn

11 Kozhikode

12 Wayanad

13 Kannur

14 Kasargode Source: Land Resources ofKerala State, 1995

5.1.3.9~ Rainfall and monsoons

The ultimate source of water in surface and ground is the precipitation. Kerala has a

unique position in the world with regard to the quantity of rainfall it receives

constantly through the rain. It is to note that Kerala is one of the places in the world

receiving highest rainfall. Table 5.10 will compare the rainfall in different countries.

Table 5.10 Average Annual Rainfall (in mm) - No. Place Average rainfall

1 South America

2 North America

3 Europe

4 Africa

5 Asia

6 Australia

7 lndia

8 Kerala 3000 Source: District Saksharatha Samiti, Palakkad, 1996.

Rainfall in Kerala IS three times more than the national average and many fold greater

than North America, Europe, and Africa etc. The state had a steady, bountiful and

extensive rainfall. The annual rainfall in Kerala from 1956 to 1996 is given in the

Table 5.11 Annual rainfall in Kerala 1956 to 1996 (in mm)

The southern low land regions receives an annual average rainfall of 900 mm, and the

1975

correspondng regions of mid-land and high land are getting a rainfall of 1400 mm

and 2500 mm respectively. The eastern regions of the three physiographic divisions

Source: Land Resources of Kerulu State, 1995. 3538

are getting good rainfall throughout the year. In low land, the average annual rainfall

is 3500 mm, in mid-land it is 4000 rnm and in high land the figure is 5000 mm

1995

5.1.3.9d Physiographic Division and District-wise Variation

2973

Though the annual normal rainfall in the state is 3047.87 mm there is observable

variation across the fourteen districts. Lowest rainfall is always received at

Thiruvananthapuram &strict. In 1996 the district had only 1577 mm rainfall when

the state recorded an average annual rainfall of 2684 mm. For the last twenty years

(1975-1995) the district always had the lowest rainfall and the average rainfall during

the period was only 1561 mm. In 1994, when the state had an excellent rainfall of

3497 mm, first time during the couise of last ten years, Thmvananthapuram district

had only 1966.5 mm rainfall. This comes only 56.2% of the state average. Palakkad

stands second in lowest rainfall. In 1996 the district had only 1891.1 mm rainfall that

is only 70.5% of the state average of the same year. Eastern parts of westem ghat and

Palakkad have always less rainfall and Idukki district has the highest rainfall in 1996.

The district had 3830.3 mm of rainfall during the year is 25.7% of the annual rainfall

of the state. Wayanad, Emakulam, Kannw and Kasargod have also very good rainfall

during 1996. Certain pockets in the districts, Alappuzha, Emakulam, Idukki,

Palakkad showed highest rainfall in the state. Neriamangalam in Idukki district

showed the highest rainfall, which comes around Attappadi in Palakkad also had an

average of 6000 mm during the year 1996. It is to note that place of lowest rainfall is

also reported from ldukki district. Chinnar, northeast border of the Idukki district had

only 651 mm during the corresponding period. Figure 5.2 clearly shows the variation

in rainfall in different parts of the state. A district-wise monthly rainfall is given in

Table 5.12. A graph comparing the district-wise rainfall in mm for the years 1995

and 1996 are given which shows the highly undulating rainfall across the fourteen

dstricts of the state.

Figure 5.6 shows the climate and rainfall in different climatic regions of the State.

Figure 5.7 District-wise Rainfall Variation for the year 1996

5.1.3.9e Monthly variation

1WO -

500-

0 ,

Though rain is distributed throughout the year, the concentration of rain is limited to

two to three months. Table 5.12 gives month-wise distribution of nomial rainfall and

average rainfall for the last ten years. The mean annual number of rainy days over the

state is 126 and the annual rainy days v q from 45 to 172 days. Ramfall is very

I I I I !

feeble during January, February and March. Only with the onset of monsoon the rain

m Y

Y

P DISTRICT

is being active in the state. About sixty to seventy per cent of the rainfall is received

during the month of June, July and August, when south-west monsoon is very active.

Except during the north-east monsoon, rest of the months are lean in rainfall

Figure 5.8 Monthly Variation of Rainfall in the year 1996

5.1.3.9f South-west monsoon

The state is benefited by both southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon. But sixty

per cent average rainfall received by the state is from southwest monsoon. Southwest

monsoon, known by name, kalavarsham in vernacular language, starts by the end of

May or beginning of June and extends up to September. Last hundred years history

shows that southwest monsoon had its beginning more on June first before May 11

and never late than June 19. In 1996, state had 1885 mm of rain from southwest

monsoon, which comes 59.6% of the state annual rainfall. Northern districts are

more benefited by southwest monsoon and there is ascending progress when it moves

from south to north. When Thimvananthapuram has 813 mm rainfall from Southwest

monsoon, Kasargod had 2695 (75%) during the corresponding period.

5.1.3.99 North-east monsoon

Northeast monsoon, called by the &me thulavarsham in the state starts by middle of

October and continues in the month of November. An average rainfall of 653 mm,

which comes 23% of the total rainfall, is contributed by northeast monsoon. The

details of rainfall during monsoons in Kerala are given in Table 5.12

Table 5. 12 Rainfall in Kerala during monsoons (mm) Rainfal Percentag Rainfall Percentag

No. Name of the district Normal 1 during e of during e of rainfall S. West rainfall to N.East rainfall to

monsoo normal monsoon

1 Thimvananthapuram

2 Kollam

3 Pathanamthtta

4 Alappuzha

5 Kottayarn

6 Idukkl

7 Emakularn

8 Thrissur

9 Palakkad

10 Malappuram

11 Kozhikode

12 Wayanad

13 Kannur

14 Kasargod

3062.4 1885 60.37 653.2 23.3

Source: Land Resources oJfKerala State, 1995.

Figure 5.10 North-East Monsoon in Kerala

It is seen that the southern districts like Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram had

comparatively good rainfall during 1996 northeast monsoon. Annual rainfall of 632

mm, which forms thirty-two per cent of the annual districts rainfall, is being

contributed Figures 5.9 and 5.10'are given to show the concentration of rainfall

during southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon respectively.

Part I1

5.2.0 Qualitative Analysis of the Causes of the Problem of Water Scarcity in Kerala

Despite the geographc and climatic advantages the State has, the scarcity of water is

becoming a major problem in many regions. This is reasonably a recent trend, and the

magnitude of the problem is increasing year after year. The water scarcity in summer,

identified as droughts is mainly reflected in dry rivers and lowering of water table.

Ths adversely affects the drinking water sector. "During the drought years, 15-20 per

cent of the homestead open wells dry up, affecting about 3 million people. Most of

the larger water supply schemes depend on surface water sources. When these

sources either dry up or do not yield water to the requirements, most of the drinking

water supply schemes fail to cater to the requirements of the people. In addition, it

has impact on agriculture and to some extent on hydroelectric power generation. Not

only rice crop hut also plantation and spice crops of Kerala get affected during the dry

years; in some cases, perennial crops totally perish."7

The analysis, which follows, is an attempt to trace the causes of the water scarcity in

the state. A variety of factors, both physical and anthropo-centric have its roots in the

problem. The question of appropriate technological management of the water

resources depends upon understanding of the problem at its entirety. Various factors

influencing the water scarcity are discussed in the forthcoming section.

5.2.1 Evaporation and water loss

Loss of water by evaporation is high in Kerala. "It is estimated that as high as 1500-

2000 mm of water is lost as evaporation from water bodies like lakes, reservoirs, etc.

in eral la."' The factors that contributes for such evaporation are:

a) Temperature of the evaporating surface;

b) Relative humidity in the air;

c) Wind speed;

d) Atmospheric pressure.

The mean annual temperature in the state varied from 25.4OC to 31.0°C and

maximum average temperature is found to be 33°C. Palakkad has recorded

maximum temperature during summer. The average temperahue during the hottest

period at Palakkad is 37.loC. The average sunny days in the state are 197.'

Water retained in the unprotected surface soil will easily get waporated during the

bright sunny days. The capillary force achieve the water table will lifi water in the

form of attached films to the soil surface. The process of evaporation continues till

the capillary force is &minished.

Pacey and Cullies (1986) observes that infiltration occurs at a faster rate in hot

weather than in cold.'' As the rate of evaporation and infiltration are very high in hot

weather water table will be considerably lowered during summer. "Water tabie is the

upper surface of the,mpletely saturated groundl1 and water scarcity appears as and

when the water table disappear below the level of fetch ability of water.

5.2,2 Rainfall and water shortage

The main source of fresh water and its replenishment on earth's surface is rain or

snow. Kerala has been exclusively looking rainwater for all her water needs and so

rainfall is all the more important fot the state. The rainfall pattem of the state is very

peculiar and the fairly heavy rainfall often denoted as 'plentiful' it is one of the

problems of water scarcity of the state.

Though the annual normal rainfall is 3063 mm, the actual rainfall pattem is very

uneven or erratic. Bulk of the rainfall is received during southwest monsoon period

leaving a long dry spell when there is practically no recharge to the groundwater.

It is seen that 60-65 per cent of the rainfall in Kerala is received from southwest

monsoon. Torrents formed out of the heavy spell of intense southwest monsoon are

unmanageable in a conservation point of view for non-monsoon or non-rain periods.

Half of the entire amount of southwest monsoon is showered with 30-40 hours with a

mean rate of 5 cdhour. Such a quick and intense rain is very rare in any part of the

world and infiltration and aquifer charging through the highly rugged topography of

Kerala is difficult.

The northeast monsoon can be considered as the critical rainfall when more water is

allowed to infiltrate into the aquifer systems. Wherever the northeast monsoon is

active and continues till the end of November or December the ground water

conditions are better. Rate of infiltration will be more in northeast monsoon because

of sufficient gaps with the antecedent rain and short sometime till intense rainfall.

Though there is good rainfall from south -west monsoon, water conservation or

harvesting in the context of Kerala is difficult and the abundant water is lost to the

plains and eventually to the sea.

There are studies which shows that rainfall is decreasing gradually in Kerala The

pattern of ramfall in Kerala coupled with diminishing rainfall in the state is paving a

way towards a water crisis in the state. The percentage of departure of rainfall from

normal is given in Table 5.13.

Table 5.13 Percentaae de~arture of rainfall from normal 1990 to 1997 - Si. No. Year Annual South-west monsoon North-east monsoon

Source: Economlc Ilevrew, 1997.

" + ! $ j j j j $ 7

Z 0 MONTH

Figure 5.11 Deviation from normal rainfall during 1996

5.2.3 Unique Physiography of Kerala and Water Scarcity

Physiography of any place plays an important role in the management of its water

resource. It is physiography, which controls the run off factor of the surface water as

well as the infiltration of the rainfall into the groundwater body. In Kerala ninety per

cent of the state exhibits a very rugged topography. As one moves from west to east,

the raggedness of the physiography increases and the area is characterised by the

presence of more and more hill with sleep slopes. This undulating topography

accelerates the run off and more than eighty-five per cent of the rainfall received in

the state escapes as run off or stream dscharge into the neighbouring sea. It is

obvious that the undulating topography plays its role in the water crisis of the state

5.2.4 Water scarcity run off relation

Apart from the reports of decreasing rainfall, Kerala receives good rainfall when

compared w~th other states of India. But because of the unique features of the state,

the potential of ramfall couldn't be fully made use. State gets an annual rainfall of

3063 millimetres from monsoon rain and off seasonal rains. The intensity and

duration of rains are such that water cannot be conserved beyond a limit. As it rains

most of the water immediately reaches the ground. Some of the water is intercepted

by vegetation where it is stored temporarily on the foliage and partially evaporates.

Some of this water drops to the ground. After the interception storage capacity of the

leaves has been filled additional rain falls to the ground. Thus the rate at which the

water reaches the ground may be different than the rate at which the rain occurs.

The water collects in small cracks and dispersions when it is stored until it either

infiltrate or evaporate. After the initial interception and depression storage are filled

the rest of the water starts to infiltrate into the ground. "The rate of infiltration

depends on the soil texture, structure, cropping pattern and the antecedent moisture

conditions (previous rainfall or dry sea~on)."'~ The initial rate of infiltration is higher

and as the infiltration continues and the soil becomes saturated with water, the rate

subsides and reaching a steady rate termed the 'final infiltration rate'.13 If the

infiltration reaches a layer of rock, hardpan or other barrier the infiltration rate again

changes depending on the permeability of the barrier. When the rate of rainfall is

greater than the rate of infiltration, run off will occur. Run off occurs as long as the

rain intensity continues to be greater than the infiltration rate.

One of the basic problems of water scarcity in the state is the greater run off of

rainwater because of the poor infiltration rate. The high to very high run off rate

reduces the aquifer charging. When heavy rainfalls in the undulating watersheds, it

forms flat run off which further fonhs torrents of water, which rushes into a river and

finally emptied in the seas. Runoff reduces the infiltration and because of the poor

infiltration aquifer will be at a lower position. But exploitation of aquifer continues

more than the rate of recharge and which finally results in water crisis.

A number of factors are influencing the run off and so these factors are indirectly

causing of the water shortage in the state.

5.2.5 Intensity and duration of rainfall

Qualitative and quantitative changes are gradually taking place in the rainfall pattern

of the state. Earlier rainy season has spread over 10 months including an active

southwest monsoon, reasonable good northeast monsoon and off-seasonal rains,

generally named edamazha in the vernacular language. (Isolated non-monsoon

rainfall receives in between two monsoon rains). It is not the downpours but the

prolonged less intense rains, which allowed water to infiltrate at a steady rate so that

aquifers, were charged adequately during the rainy season.

There is a major shift in the pattern of rainfalls in the past few years. For the last ten

years active rainfall has been reduced to four to five months. Quantitative details of

the rainfall are given in the part I of this chapter. Rainy days are limited to less than

hundred days in a year. Rainfall intensity studies show that one third of the rainfall in

the state is showering within 30-35 hours in an year. As a result of the heavy to vely

heavy rain withln a small time a 'final infiltration rate' cannot be maintained and

where intensity is greater than the rate of infiltration run off will occur. Rainfall of

this sort is unique elsewhere in the country or any part of the world that more than

half of the rainfall is delivered within a short spell.

According to Zon (1927), "basically only two elements determine the yield from a

watershed. Prec~pitation and evapo-transpiration and the quantitative water balance

of the watershed is represented by the equation

R = P - E

Where R stands for run off; P stands for precipitation, and E stands for evapo-

transpiration."'"

Antecedent rains also influence the rate of infiltration.

5.2.6 Topography and relation to water crisis

The physical condition of the catchment area are not homogenous and even at the

micro level they contain a variety of slopes. Prominent slope classes found in Kerala

IS are:

1. 0-1 % slope - Level to nearly level - 13 per cent

2. 1% 3% slope V e r y gently sloping - 24 per cent

3 3% 5% slope - Gently sloping - 13 per cent

4. 5%~10% slope - Moderately sloping - 13 per cent

5 100/0-15% slope -Moderately steeply sloping - 20 per cent

6 15%30% slope -Moderately steeply sloping - 2 per cent

7. >30% - Very steeply sloping- 8 per cent

Regions in the mid and high land have an undulating topography. Rainfall over the

undulating planes will form run off which gradually grow into a stream with the run

off from the neighbouring hills. Streams further give rise to torrents of water and give

its way to a river. These torrents were engulfed in rivers. The forty-one west-flowing

rivers cutting across the state finally empty the water resource to the Arabian Sea.

The run off and the resultant drainage continued all through the rainy season and a

good part of the rainwater is lost without storing in the aquifer for lean seasons. The

other physical factors like type of'soil, gravel content of the soil, available water

content (AWC) of the soil etc. are good and are suitable for infiltration.

5.2.6.1 Soil Types of Kerala

The soils of Kerala are with varying degrees of water retention capacity. Soils, except

the sandy loam in low land and hard rocky soils in the mid and high land are suitable

for infiltration. In midland and high land there are certain patches of rock or hard-pan

which cause a barrier for infiltration.

5.2.7 Population growth - change in lifestyle-water scarcity relation

Kerala as it is today, came into being on the reorganization of states in 1956. It

accounts for 1.19 per cent of the country's area, which holds 3.71 per cent of the

country's population. A high density of population (749lsq. km.) and a consequent

low land man ratio, a highly of modernized and commercialized food and non-food

agriculture, heavily water-dependent industries, growing water consuming lifestyle,

both in rural and urban population, etc. are exerting immense pressure over the stock

and flow of the water resource of the state

One of the yardsticks in measuring standard of living around the world is the water

consumption. In many of the developed nations the per capita water consumption is

over 200 gallons (900 litres) per day while in India it is ten gallons (45 litres).

Perhaps Kerala ranks first among the states with a per capita consumption rate of over

twenty gallons (ninety litres).16 The abundant rains, mostly spread over nearly ten

months, proximity of river in evely ten square kilometres over the state, innumerable

tanks, ponds, wells, reservoirs, backwater, etc. made an average Muluyuli (Keralite)

to lead a very resource-consuming lifestyle. His lavish spendng of water includes

minimum two to five times bath h t h an average twenty litres of water at a time,

higher water-consuming flushing toilets, day-to-day washing of his dress, and so on.

The nuclearisation of the family in Kerala also has added to the problem of water

scarcity by fragmentation of land, which made the water harvesting an un-viable

proposition.

5.2.8 Deforestation and its relation to water scarcity

Forests are very complex ecosystems and natural resource base doing a variety of

functions. Forests in India had remained central to its civilizational evolution and it

was being venerated because of its ecological utility and economic imposture. But

with the introduction of colonial rule the perception of reverence was given way to

acute of exploitation. "Both industrialization and economic growth in the colonial

and post-colonial periods have been based on the reckless exploitation of tropical

forests. Today, the cumulative impact of this over-exploitation, has lead to critical

and almost"" irreversible ecological degradation.

Stipulation in National Forest Policy 1952, to maintain one-third of the land for

forests, as many as 4328 thousand hectares of fresh forest lands were diverted to non-

forests use between the period 1951 to 1980. The rate diversion in thirty years (1951

to 1980) was over 140 thousand hectares per annurn.l8

The diverted land during the period had been used for the following purpose.19

Purpose Area of forestland diverted 1000 hectares

Agriculture 2628

River valley projects 502

Induced townships 134

Transmiss~on line roads and others 1008 4328

Forests have been performing a variety of complex functions of which most important

functions are production of oxygen, maintenance of hydrological cycle, and water

resource management. "One hectare of forest release 125425 x 10" tons of oxygen

per annum into the atmosphere. And by doing so it fixes five to ten tons of carbon

dioxide in the form of sugars, fats, oil, and the like for the use of million of

animals".20

According to La1 ( 1989) and Shiva et al. (1991), under the tropical monsoon climatic

condition, forests ecosystems play a vital role in moderating the impact of rainfall and

controlling the instant run off of water from watersheds. Also it decreases the

sedimentation and reduces possibilities of flood.

There is a doubt about the impact of forest, ecosystem on rainfall. There are a

number of studies on the correlation. According to Hughes (1947), presence of

forests increases only the possibility of local shower^.^' Nicholson (1930)'~,

Patterson (1956)*~, etc. hold the view that forests have a significant effect in rainfall.

It rains less than expected where forests have been cut. Forestation increased the

annual precipitation in an area by about twelve per cent according to Rakhrnanov

( 1 9 6 6 ) . ~ ~ Sir William Sehlich, an Inspector General of Forests in colonial Inda, who

made extensive study on forests rain relationship records that influence of forests on

rainfall was probably small. Monsoon which is coming from outside is responsible

for rain in the country.

5.2.8.1 Forests: Role in Water Conservation and Run off Prevention

Though there is doubt about influence of forest on rainfall, forest ecosystem and

vegetative cover over the forest area doing an unrefutable role in conserving water

and making it available throughout the year. This function of the forest ecosystem

has a very crucial social and economic implication.

Forest reduces the quantity of rain water reaching in streams as run off or surface flow

firstly by canopy interception and evaporation from foliage, secondly by litter

interception and finally by increasing the infiltration into the ground. The infiltration

is encouraged in forest soil with a good cover of litter and a low density of spongy

humus. When water availability exceeds field capacity it flows down under gravity

and enriching the underground aquifers. "The aquifers recharge the outflows through

springs and on forest slopes saturated soils give rise to seepage streams which

together with the surface run-offs join to form rivers."25

Zon (1927) had argued that "forests are conservers of water for stream flows" and that

they "save a greater amount of precipitation for streams flow than does any other

vegetation cover similarly situated."26 He also establishes that forests tend to equalize

the flow throughout the year by making the low stages higher.

Kitlredge (1948) virtually repeated Zon's words, "forests prolong increase flow in low

water penods."z7

Run-off and water balance of a watershed with forest cover, vegetative or without

cover will be varying significantly. This can be computed mathematically. Run-off

of a watershed with minimum cover or without cover is calculated by equation

Where R is run-off; P is precipitation, and E is evapo-transpiration.

But in watershed with forest or the equation will he

The component AS in the equation is the interception or temporary storage of water in

leaf litter. The storage in leaf litter will allow greater infiltration and so higher

chances of underground aquifer charging."

The studies made in India indicate that canopy interception varies from 11.6 per cent

of the total precipitation in eucalyptus plantation to 38.2 per cent in sal forest.

A study by Ghosh on comparative figures of infiltration under various land uses is

given below.29

Land use Infiltration c d h

1. Natural forests 5.16

2. Mixed plantation of eucalyptus 5.30

3. Natural grasslands 3.00

4. Terraced cultivation 1.40

5.2.8.2 Diminishing forest wealth of Kerala

Kerala had a good forest vegetative cover from time immemorial. Ward and Conner

observes "the whole country presents a ground of green and is for a considerable part

of the year from the abundance of moisture covered with a rich verdure, but it is too

woody to admit of much extent of pasturage."30

Drastic changes had happened to forests within a century and according to official

records Kerala possessed 12,500 km2 of forests in 1940. The forest cover was

reduced to 9,400 km2 in 1970. But actual forest cover even during the period of

seventies was much below the official statistics. The figure said to be was 7,520 km2.

The period 1940 to 1970 alone has recorded a loss of thirty-three per cent of the forest

cover. Official records claim that presently the state has a forest cover which is

around twenty-two to twenty-three per cent of the total geographical area of the state.

Even this figure is much below the required forest cover under the direction of the

National Forest I'olicy of 1952. The forest cover claimed includes the reserve forest

and other man-made forest of teak and eucalyptus plantation. But unofficial studies

made by Chandran (1991)31 shows that actual forest, which can do the function of a

typical forest, is reduced to about five per cent of the total geographical area. Nair

(1987)j2 also reiterates the heavy loss of forest cover. According to h m except the

plantation cover, total area of the forest is reduced to 6000 sq. km. of with possible

area of virgin forest (free from all Mundane intervention) is less than 1500 km2.

The heavy loss of forest cover through the decades is affecting the environment and

hydrology of the state. Gradual departure of rainfall and growing water scarcity are

the serious observable changes in Kerala's environment for the last decade. Many

social scientists and activists are attributing the changes on account of the heavy

deforestation. But no significant studies are yet to come for establishing the

correlation of deforestation with rainfall.

It has already been discussed that forest cover is facilitating the infiltration of

rainwater and so the aquifer charging of ground water. Forest cover in a river

catchment act as ;, W a l sponge, soaking up rainfall and thereby re-charging the

ground and eventually releasing it slowly to the river below. This will keep the river

flow live all through the months of the whole year.

According to a study by UNESCO, the watershed of one river releases between one

and three per cent of total rainfall when forested but when trees were cut down,

between ninety-seven and ninety-nine percent.

Aiya (1904)" had observed the steady flow of rivers all through the year because of

the good forest cover in the river catchments. "In the larger rivers-the Periyar, the

Ranni, and the Kallada-there is always considerable amount of water due to no

doubt to the fact that heavy forest at their sources does not allow the rains falling in

the wet weather to run-off too rapidly."

Now water flows in the rivers are quite unsteady and this may be because of the heavy

deforestation in the catchment of the rivers. Out of the forty-four rivers, forty-one

originate from Western Ghat region and flow towards the west and join the

Lakshadweep Sea. The remaining three rivers also originated from Western Ghat

region within Kerala state and join in the Bay of Bengal. The tropical evergreen

forests of Western Ghats and other patches of forests along the coast of rivers were

undergone considerable amount of degradation. The capacity with which the forest

catchment can prevent water, retain and store as underground water so as to make a

steady release and make the river flow regular is not so happening as in the past.

The rivers of Kerala are fairly short compared to the other rivers in the country, most

of which is falling within 50 to 100 krns. This short-lengthed rivers cutting across the

state is 'siphoning off the water from the catchments to the sea at a faster rate. The

tributaries and streams, which are feedmg the rivers in their upper catchments, are

also facilitating the process of 'siphoning off.'

A number of factors contribute for the degradation and loss of forests in Kerala.

Encroachment over forests for agriculture and habitations from sixties due to

population explosion has its toll on forest degeneration. Plantation development like

that of tea, cardamom (Eletlaria ca~damoum), etc. has adversely affected the forests.

Thousands of hectares of forests were gradually clear felled due to the plantation

invasion. Occasional braking out of wild fire is yet another reason for the loss of

vegetative cover in forests.

The colonial approach to see forest as the possible source of revenue and stock of raw

materials for industries is continuing even after attainment of self-rule. The 'selection

felling2-a provision for cutting eight to ten trees from a hectare of forest employed

by various Governments from time to time had progressively reduced the forest cover.

The intensive utilization of the water resources of Western Ghats through major dams

has resulted in extensive submersion of valley forests in the river catchments. The

river valley projects for water control and power generations had an adverse impact in

environment. Dams and its allied structures have lead to irreversible fragmentation

and degradation of the forest cover. This indeed adversely affected the river flow.

The inter-basin diversion of water for irrigation and power generation has similarly

altered the hydrological cycle in many regions. Periyar, the largest river in Kerala, is

an ideal example for this.

Sixty per cent of hydel power generated in the state is form the water of the Periyar

river. Morc than eighty per cent of the heavy industries are concentrated along the

bank of the river. Eleven major dams have been constructed across the river and

except two all others are for power generation.

Nair (1987) evaluates that loss of forest cover and degradation of catchment of the

river Periyar since 1942 comes around sixty per cent of the total catchment area.14

The afforestation programme, which also began in 1960s to compensate the

deforestation, was unproductive and it was an "aggressive forestry programme,"

according to many. Though there is a good general awareness about the

environmental problems and deforestation in Kerala societies we have not yet

succeeded to save the forest and protect the environment

Table 5.14 Some of the rivers of Kerala affected by deforestation River Forest division

w r 1 Kulathupuzha reserve forest 1

I I plane land of Trissur district. I I

Kulathupuzha

Pamba (Chalakayam Kakkiyar)

- river originated from Nelliyampathi mountain top. The catchment area of the river include Anamala mountain to the

I I

5.2.9 Unsustainable cropping practices and the impact on water

Gudrackel reserve forest in Thenmala, Ranny Division

Nelliympathi reserve forest in Nemara Forest Division

table

Kerala had a diversified cropping pattern from time immemorial. The cropping

pattern of a region may be the result of a number of features such as the ecological

adjustment of different crops to the particular regon, physical environment,

consumption needs of the inhabitants, and net returns from farming.

The state had never achieved self-sufficiency in food production though there is a

good climate for food crop. The total area under food grains accounts for only thirty-

six per cent of the total cropped area as against seventy-four percent of the national

average. The principle of comparative advantage has lead the agricultural growth and

cropping intensity in the state. Commercial crops, like rubber, pepper, cardamom,

coconut, etc, reported phenomenal growth reducing the food crops to a marginal

level. Details of wet land conversion and its environmental impacts in the water

resource management etc. are given'else where in this chapter. Apart from the impact

of conversion, the specific impact of some of the new cropping systems on water

resource management is analysed here.

Some agricultural practices have a direct or indirect impact on the water scarcity of

the state. in the undulating terrain of mid lands and highly sloped high lands, soil

conservation and surface water management measures have to be taken

simultaneously. Improper agricultural practices lead to both soil erosion and water

drainage. Growth of rubber plantation in mid land and high land appears to be one of

the reason for changing water scenario of the region. Ethno biographic reflections

and time line search reveal that water scarcity as we feel today have been developed

after the introduction of rubber plantation in this locality.

The botanical studies reveal that the evapo-transpiration rate of rubber plant is much

more than other trees. The rubber trees draw water at a faster rate and transmit a

larger quantity of' water as water vapour. The process of evapo-transpiration affects

the water level in the soil. It is to be noted that rubber plants sheds its leaves during

December-January and fresh tender leaves appears within a fortnight, in the beginning

of summer. The stomata1 transpiration of tender leaves is very high and it has been

exerting heavy pressure over the ground water resources. Rubber is one of the few

crops with lush foliage in the peak summer, and probably the only crop which is so

extensively mono cropped.

Cultivation of certain crops like tapioca, ginger and vegetables over the slanting

surfaces of mid lands and high lands, are adversely affecting the water resources. The

loss of natural grasslvegetative cover over the land will result in severe run off and

soil erosion. The severe soil erosion will reduce the water retention capacity of the

catchment areas of the natural and man-made reservoirs, which are doing a varying

function of water conservation. Certain studies have established that tapioca

cultivation in Idukki during 1972-1978 had caused considerable amount of soil

erosion and reservoir siltation.

5.2.10 Degeneration and Conversion of wet land ecosystems

Indian landscape in general and Kerala in particular, is dotted with hundreds or

thousands of lakes, rivers, marshes, mangroves, reservoirs, tanks, ponds, wells, paddy

fields, estuaries, canals, ditches, etc. doing a variety of functions. These natural or

man-made ecosystems are generally been termed as wetlands.

Various definition have been given to wet lands depending upon their functions,

benefits location etc. It is defined as "a collective term for ecosystem whose

formation has been dominated by water, and whose processes and characteristics are

largely controlled by water."35 Cowardin (1979) defined wetlands as "lands

transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, where the water table is

usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. For the purpose

of this classification wet land must have one or more of the following attributes: (1)

at least periodically the land supports predominantly hydrophytes; (2) the substrate is

predominantly hydric soil; and (3) the substrate is non-soil and is saturated with water

or covered by shallow water at same time during the growing season of each year."36

Yet another defin~tion says "wetlands as an area where, for a part of the year at least,

water stands naturally from 2.5 cm to 300 cm" (Lorus and Milno, 1964))~ This

definition excludes lakes and estuaries with depths more than 300 cm.

The term wetland is generally being used in the state for rice fields, which are

occupying water for four months or year around in varying depths. Malayalam

Lexicon equated i t with Vuyul, Kundum, Nelam, etc.j8 Agricultural statistics in Kerala

(1975) also takes the same stand.)'

In the context of' the ongoing study, the researcher uses the word to denote the

following items of water bodies which are within the limits of the cited definition

given in the previous pages: (1) lakes; (2) rice fields; (3) marshes; (4) mangroves; (5)

tanks; and ( 6 ) reservoirs, ponds, and htches.

Rice fields in the state are with a lot of diversities. It includes virippu, mundakan,

and punja fields of fresh water areas. Apart from the fresh water types they also

include the coastal salt water including kari lands of Kuttanad, kole lands of Trichur,

pokuli lands of Alappuzha Emakulam, Trichur, and Kaipad of Kannur districts.

Wetlands are providing a number of goods and services to the people of its command

area. However, worldwide they are facing threats from an ongoing process of

overexploitation andlor conversion into other uses-industrial, agricultural or

residentialkleading to their degradation, fragmentation or depletion. Though slow,

the environmental, social, and economic impacts of the degeneration and conversion

of this ecosystems are increasingly being felt world over.

The wetlands are performing a number of functions. Most visible functions of them

are storing and providing water for a different sets of activities. Apart from storing

and supplying water, according to Shankari and Shaw (1993)~', they also:

i) Reducing the damage from flash flood;

ii) Allowing more percolation;

iii) Building up soil moisture and greater greenery;

iv) Reducing the soil erosion; and

v) Maintaining atmospheric humidity.

Historically, wetlands across the world have been convertedfilled for other land uses

or overexploited. This has lead to its degradation and reduction.

In developing countries a good amount of people are directly depending wetland

resources for their livelihood and basic needs. Fisheries provide food, income, and

employment opportunities for a very large population. Paddy, which is a major

wetland plant, is a stable food for over half of the world's population. Apart from the

major direct functions, a number of indirect functions that are equally important are

performed by wetlands.

5.2.11 Ground water rechargeldischarge functions of wet lands

In the context of the present study the ground water recharging and discharging

functions of wetlands requires special mention. In an ecological perspective also this

function has a great significance and having bearing over the people's life.

During the process of infiltration of the water into the underground aquifer, water will

be filtered and made cleaner for human consumption. The filtered water may flow

laterally underground until it rises to the surface in another wetland as ground water

discharge. Thus recharge in one wetland is linked with the discharge of another. This

recharging acts as 'flood storage' during flood seasons and reduces the intensity of

floods and providng clear water for drinking purposes. In fact the ground water

charging functions of wetland do have an impact in the nearby dry land also. This

will invariably rise the ground water level of the near by dry lands.

One of the major developments in the history of Kerala agriculture since the

formatior1 of the state in 1956 was the large-scale structural change for the traditional

wet land rice farming system. Traditional wetland rice farning system that had the

longest tradition in Kerala has succumbed to the new socio-economic pressures. .

Profound socio-economic and environmental effects, which we are confronting today,

are because of the undesirable changes in the past and it may assume newer

dimension in the near future if the pace of change continues in the present magnitude.

"Despite governmental support in rice production, the mid-seventies onwards

witnessed a sharp change in cropping patterns. The area under rice sharply fell from

8.74 lakh ha in 1972-73 to 5.032 l a b ha in 1994-95."41 The same period has shown a

sharp rise in plantation crops like coconut (7.45 lakh ha to 9.007 l a b ha), rubber

(0.62 lakh ha to 4.43 lakh ha), pepper (from 1.163 lakh ha to 4.887 lakh ha), etc.

Trend in area of rice production in Kerala during the last five years is given in the

table. The area under rice was continuously on the decline from 1990-91 onwards

and the fall in area was about 88000 ha over the last six years that works out an

average annual of about 13,000 ha.

Table 5.15 Declining area of production of rice (000 hectares) -

Year 1990-9 1 1991-92

1994-95

Area 559 54 1

503 1995-96 471

Source: Economic Review, 1996.

(Area in 1000 ha)

Figure 5.12 Declining area of production of rice in Kerala

The reasons attributed for the shift are:42

1. Decrease in availability of farm labours;

2. Price fluctuations with unfavourable trends during years of high production;

3. Higher profits from cultivation of crops like pepper, coconut, arecanut, and rubber;

4. Drudgery of farm operations in wet lands;

5 . High market value of reclaimed paddy fields;

6 . Lack of infrastructural facilities in rice fields; and

7. Comparatively low productivity of food crops.

Reclaimed paddy fields are widely being used for houses and other buildings.

'Conversion of wet lands to dry land would create problems of water stagnation etc.'

Parmeswaran (1997) also possess the view that conversion of paddy fields is the

major cause of sudden flooding which are very frequent in monsoon period.43

Table 5.16 Distribution of wet land holding according to size - Kerala (1963-64)

(area in acres) Size of - Virippu Mundakan Punja

Holdings No. Area No. Area No. Area

Less 1 .OO 341957 170610 272599 138220 57672 27912

1.00 - 2.00 136172 200170 130120 197994 20023 28955

2.00 - 3.00 57218 130081 53647 119861 3334 7522

15.00 & above I041 28526 173 6698 2384 52107

Total 623349 979542 527193 814450 94743 190321

Source: Agricultural S!atistics in Kerala, 1975

5.2.11.1 Backwater or Estuaries

There are a number of backwaters in the low land belt of the Kerala state. The

Vembanad backwater is one of the most important estuarine systems in the west coast

of India. The other important backwaters are Kumbla, Kalnad, Bekkal, Chittari,

Vulapattunum, Korupuzha, Kuuvyil, Valiyungode, Cranganore, Perur, Kayamkulam,

Ashtamudi, AnjerIp, Kutinumkulam, and Veli distributed across the length of Kerala.

5.2.12 Extinction of traditional water conserving systems

There were innumerable traditional man-made (artificial) water percolation systems

that could act as good catchments of water. Apart from direct use of water from these

catchments for non-monsoon period or non-rainy days all these structure were acting

like percolation tanks to charge the aquifers in the ground water so as to use it for

lean seasons

Indian landscape in general and Kerala in particular was dotted with hundred of

thousands and thousands of small reservoirewet lands, lakes, tanks, ponds, wells,

valleys, etc.

In addition to their major function of supplying and storing water they were providing

a number of functions:

i) They probably reduce the damage from flash floods;

ii) Allowing mere percolation;

iii) Building-up soil moisture and greater greenery;

iv) Reduces soillland erosion; and

v) Maintenance of atmospheric humidity.

Maintenance of many of these was a regular practice of cultural, religious or social

life of the people of the state. But last three decades witnessed the gradual

degradation and disappearance of many of these stnlctures. In fact the role of these

structures in water resources management in Kerala is very high. The acute shortage

of water as we feel today can be attributed, to an extent, to the degeneration and

disappearance of these structures. A brief analysis of the degeneration of these

structures is given below.

Village Ponds, Wetlands and Tanks

'The rice fields, especially of mid-land and high land are 'large percolation reservoirs'

which collects the run-off rain water of the nearby water sheds and allows percolation

into the aquifers apart from its function of gowing paddy. Traditionally fanners have

been making special arrangements for the rain water harvesting by making glazed

mud ridges (vuramhu) dividing the land into many compartments so as to reduce the

flow of water and facilitating to the percolation down.

These wet lands potential of conserving water and growing paddy up to thrice in an

year are progessively being filled and converted for non-agriculture uses if not for

cultivating cash crops. A number of social and agricultural scientists have pointed

out the alarming rate of conversion as a dangerous bend in Kerala's agriculture,

which will be threatening the food security and water balance.

Rice fields had a great role in controlling sudden floods by allowing a flat flow

through them for the torrents of water rushing down from undulating terrain.

The real estate boom in the state during the nineties accelerated the pace of

conversion. This period shows a record conversion of rice field into dry land for non-

agricultural uses. 'This has resulted in loss of thousands of thousands hectares of rice

field with potential of storing and percolating millions of thousands gallon water.

5.2.12.1 Village ponds and wells- toponyms and their relation to water sources

Many of the place names in Kerala are ending in kulam or kuzhi. Ernakulam,

Thimvankulam, Kanjikuzhi, Thavalakuzhi are examples for this. This does convey

the indication that there were a number of kulams (ponds) and kuzhis (ditches) in the

state. The 'temple ponds' of Kerala were very famous which combined a number of

social, environmental, and religious functions. The highly decentralised and scattered

innumerable village ponds were the people's initiative for water resource

management. One of the major duties of the local administration has been the

maintenance of the common village ponds and water source for the welfare of people.

Traditionally villages were keeping more than a dozen of common ponds for their

multiple needs. Total area of these ponds was many hectares. In many of the places,

whose name end with a pond or a well, one would hardly see any trace of such

structures. There is a large scale and unchecked degradation of these water resources.

Part I11

5.3 Water Resource Management: Approaches and Problems

Kerala, a state known for its abundance of water sources is increasingly becoming a

water scarce region. Midland region of Kerala, which occupies the majority of the

geographical area of the state, is receiving the maximum strain of it. The situation in

the low lands is also not better, but their problem is quite different. Almost all these

problems can be traced to the absence of sufficient water resource management

systems in the state. 'Solution of a problem lies in its cause.' The issue of water

management received the keen attention of the policy makers, both at the central and

state levels. The local governing bodies are also entrusted with the responsibilities of

water resource management. The budgetary allocation for imgation in the five year

plans are an indication of the priorities they receive in the planning process. The

focus of agricultural development in the past few decades were on irrigated crops, and

therefore irrigation also acquired priority in the policy making process. The

Nehruvian vision, which dominated the planning process of the country in the post

independent India visualized Large Dams and Irrigation projects as the temples of

modem India. This feeling was reflected in the budgetary allocations of both the state

and central governments. Kerala has spent 17.9 percent of the cumulative investment

of plan allocation till 90 on imgation and flood control, second only to the amount

spent on industry and social services. When Rs. 28,000 lakhs were earmarked for

major irrigation projects during the 7' five-year plan, only Rs. 5000 lakhs were

allocated for minor irrigation. This trend is visible in all the five-year plans. By the

end of 8& plan total investment in major and medium irrigation was 72 percent of the

total out lay on imgation.

The quantum of investment made in the major and medium irrigation projects points

to the fact that, the conventional 'approach was always in favour of large scale

irrigation projects, which took decades to complete and required millions of Rupees

for completion. The conventional method of solving the irrigation and flood control

problems in the state was by setting up a series of dams and canals through out the

state.

Though irrigation of the wetlands was projected as a major problem in agriculture, it

is interesting to note that only a small percentage of land in the state is under wetland

cultivation. Also, it is to be noted that the total area under the wetlands shrunk

periodically with each major irrigation project. Even with such investments in

wetland cultivation, people find it difficult to continue in paddy cultivation, not due to

the scarcity of water, but due to social and economic reasons.

Irrigation of the wetlands was not the only major problem in the state, though one will

get such a feel looking at the figures spent on major irrigation projects. Each of the

three separate regions has their own associated problems. In the high and midlands,

the problem of water run off and soil erosion are crucial. In the low lands floods, and

scarcity of drinking water due to the floods in monsoon are a major problem. Each of

these problems had a local solution, and many farming systems developed in such

critical areas took care of this opportunities and threats. Some of the good examples

of such systems of agiculture are the pockali and kaipadu systems of saline wet land

cultivation and the Vellu kulrudan and kulappala cultivation prevalent in the flood

prone Kuttanadu region. The former practices are an ingenious method of rice -fish

(mainly prawns) rotation, where as the latter is a system of cultivation viable even in

highly flooded lands

Modem agriculture has standardized the production techniques to a great extend and

demanded uniform inputs for effective agriculture. This lead to the greater

standardization of solutions, mostly employing large scale projects.

One of the glaring examples of the failure of large scale water management system

was the Kuttanadu water management scheme comprising of Thannermukkam Bund

and Thottappilly spill way, designed to prevent the entry of the acidic (oru) water as

well as to ensure the relief of water during monsoons, was a almost a total failure,

allegedly due to incorrect hydrological data used to design the project. What ever is

the reason, the project was a mammoth one with a huge capital investment. Currently

Kuttanadu is facing the worst ever ecological crisis, mostly due to the new relief

mechanisms.

5.3.1 Dynamics of Water Resource Management

The dynamics of water resource management in the state is generally being confined

to irrigation particularly of paddy fields and drinking water development. The state

has elaborate and separate machinely to serve these ends. The state had been

following techno-centric capital-intensive approach in addressing irrigation and

drinking water supply without considering either the unique features of the state or

the science of water resource management. A good amount of physical infrastructure

has been created for both which are neither user-friendly nor eco-friendly irrigation

Agricultural development of a region solely depends on how efficiently the land and

water resource are harnessed to have optimum production. But imgation

development in Kerala is almost entirely cantered on developing surface water

resource and the lion's share of investment is on major projects. The dominant

conventional paradigm is construction of big damns across rivers and diverting water

for projected agricultural demands that are often misrepresented demands. The total

extent of land that can be brought under irrigation in the state through the 10

completed and 19 ongoingipartially completed major/medium irrigation projected is

estimated at 5.15 lakhs net area and 9.32 lakhs ha gross area. The cumulative

investment so far made in irrigation sector amounts to Rs. 1,829 crores and the area

benefited is 4.12 lakh ha (net) and 6.67 lakh ha (gross). The share of major and

medium irrigation sector is of the order of Rs. 1320 crores, i.e. 72% of the total

investment on irrigation. Minor irrigation as on 3/96 has benefited 1.93 lakh ha net

area and 2.33 lakh ha (gross).

'The other sources of irrigation are minor irrigation class I, and class I1 works, lift

irrigation, juludharu schemes, jaia sambharana paddhathy, etc. under minor

irrigation class I, and tanks and wells. Net area inigated through different sources

district-wise is given in Table 5.17.

Table 5.17 Net are irrigated under different sources (district and source wise) 1993-94

Minor Oistkt Privatelank Gout, well Private well ,d Olher Total

tank ihigalion sources 4 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 9 1 10

Effectiveness of irrigation and increase in productivity by imgation etc. are highly

Total

debating question in the state. A number of studies have showed that there exists no

clear evidence that irrigation projects have significantly benefited Kerala's

Source: Kerala State Resource Based Perspective Plan A. D. 2020, 1997. 1.02.880

agriculture.

5.3.1.1 Demand for irrigation in Kerala

3.743

Many studies suggest that irrigation planning in the state is not in tune with the real

demand for irr~gation. 'The humid tropical condition and the specified ago-climatic

2,372

characteristic features of the state are not being seriously considered in the

technological planning of Kerala's irrigation projects.

46,102

Santhakumar et al ( 1 995) have showed that the planning of irrigation projects have

the following l imi ta t i~ns .~~ A realistic estimate of the requirement of imgation water

791

was not made; data on local water resources were not collected and analysed; the

65,430 23.518 78.762 3.23.598

possibility of using different scales of operation in irrigation sources of water and

technological solutions was not explored, and the planning was not broad, enough to

examine the possibility of having a cropping pattern which consume less water.

Requirement of water for a crop is kstimated in terms of 'physical demand' (PD). It

is the 'physical demand' that determines the need and rationale of the irrigation. This

'physical demand' is an estimation of water to be provided, in addition to the quantity

available locally, to cultivate a particular crop in a specific season. Physical demand

(PD) can be defined as follows:

Physical demand = Total water needed for the - (Direct rainfall + residual water) crops for the season

So the irrigation requirement of a particular region can be assessed by rainfall;

residual moisture and the cropping system that will be adopted after the establishment

of irrigation facility. Water requirement of a crop can be reliably estimated. Rainfall

can be accurately estimated. Residual moisture varies across the topographic and

climatic condition and still then the quantum of residual moisture available at

different levels of the small watersheds of Kerala can be estimated reliably.

Santhakumar (1997)" point outs different methods of calculation of irrigation

requirement in the state. They are:

i) Engineer's assessment - Earlier phase

The basic objective of the Engineer's assessment was to convert most of the

agricultural land of Kerala into three-cropped paddy fields.

Table 5.18 Features of the early Engineer's assessment of irrigation requirement

Cropplng system Paddy alone

Ramfall ' Assumed that only fifty per cent is usable

Res~dual mo~sture Neglected

Source: Santhakumar, (1997).

ii) Engineer's assessment - After later seventies

Irrigation requirements at this phase were based on more realistic assumptions in

terms of rainfall and residual moisture. Engineers were forced to consider crops other

than paddy for the provision of irrigation in Kerala. They had also taken into account

the availability of water in the streams adjoining paddy fields. Water requirement

during Virippu and Mundakan season, May-July and August-October respectively

from monsoon rains were realistically estimated. In the second phase, it has assumed

that only fifty per cent of the irrigation requirement need be provided from the project

and the rest can be met from the small streams of the command area. Table shows

the details.

Table 5.19 Features of assessina reauirement after the late seventies

Residual moisture/locally Considered. Assumed that only 50% of the available water demand during monsoons need to be provided

I

I- I from the reservoir

Rainfall Reliable estimates I

Recommended cropping system Three crops of paddy in wet land and other irrigation needed crops in dry land

Source: Santhakumar, ( 1997).

iii) Watershed studies - A more realistic assessment of water reauirement

Water demand and availability were more meaningfully and realistically assessed in

micro level watershed studies. Scientific organizations like Centre for Water

Resource Development and ~ a n a ~ e m e n t (CWRDM) have made such studies. These

studles have brought out more information on the availability of water in the micro-

watersheds of Kerala.

According to Shanthakumar following are the conclusions emerge out of these

~tudies.~"

(i) 'There exists sufficient water locally to irrigate two crops of paddy.

Even if there is shortage at farm level water management with

effective utilisation of local streams would be sufficient to meet the

requirement.

(ii) There is also an under tapped groundwater potential in this micro-

watersheds. Even casual estimates of this ground water potential are

shown to be suficient for irrigating garden crops.

(iii) If a third crop of paddy has to be cultivated, medium-sized reservoirs

would be necessary within and outside the watershed.

In Kerala, all the major and medium irrigation projects except the Kallada Irrigation

Project are designed for irrigating rice. More than 80% of the irrigated area is under

paddy cultivation and most of the irrigation projects are concentrated in main paddy-

growing districts, viz. Palakkad, Thrissur and Emakulam.

Effectiveness of irrigation and increase in productivity by irrigation in Kerala etc. are

highly debated questions in the state. Transmission losses through irrigation channels

are as high as thlrty per cent. The irrigation system normally followed is field-to-field

flooding which involves considerable waste of water accompanied by leaching of

plant nutrients, water logging and numerous other associated problems.

Pillai (1992), who made extensive study on irrigation and productivity make a

conclusion that there is no conclusive evidence to believe that inigation contributed

substantially to productivity improvement in era la.^' He cites a study which draws

a conclusion that minor irrigation has helped the rice farmers to improve the

productivity of rice cultivation, no other available studies in the area provides

evidence to support such a conclusion. Narayanan et al. (1991) have looked into the

impact of irrigation in stabilising and improving the productivity in rice cultivation

and have reached the conclusion that the contribution of irrigation in this regard was

only marginal and this is due to the poor water rnanage~nent.~' The study by Kannan

and Pushpangadan ( 1989) reports that irrigation and productivity does not shows any

meaningful correlation in their statistical analysis.49 A study by Pillai (1992), on the

variability of agricultural production in Kerala during 1952-53 to 1973-74 also has

examined the effects of irrigation on productivity using regression analysis.

According to this also there is no conclusive evidence to believe that irrigation

contributed substantially to productivity improvement in Kerala. Issues such as

improved financial planning, inordinate delay in construction, cost escalation etc., in

irrigation sector have also been critically analysed (Netto, 1990~'; KSSP, 1988").

Even accordng to the State Planning Board, major irrigation projects are

economically and socially variable for the state. "Unfortunately Kerala could not

bestow adequate attention on the rational utilisation of the available water resources

and even in the command areas of major irrigation projects irrigation support created

over huge investments could not be put to optimal use."52

The arable area in the state comes around 24.46 la!& hectares. Planned imgation

development in the state through the major and medium imgation projects for the last

four decades has created only an area of 4.12 la!& hectares (net) under imgation. This

is only 16.8% of the cultivable area of the state.

An unreasonable delay in completing major irrigation projects has become very

common in the state. Projects like Kallada, K h r a p u z h a etc. started construction in

the year 1961 haven't completed so far. Cost escalation, for instance, for Kallada has

become more than 3347% to the original estimate. In all the case original cost has

been revised to many fold. In many cases the use of water from a project principally

aimed and actually used are highly diverging and conflicting. A heavily funded,

World Bank assisted Muvattupuzha Irrigation Project (MVIP) aimed to optimise rice

production in Emakulam and Kottayam districts is under severe criticism. Table 5.20

shows the details of the project.

The original estimated amount for the project was Rs. 2086 lakh for an expected

inigation area of 17,370 ha (net) and 34,740 (gross). Cost of construction has been

revised in the year 1992 and the revised estimate is Rs. 38,800 lakhs with an

escalation per cent of 1760. The project was dragging till recently and an amount Rs.

14,692 lakhs has been spent by this time.

The proposed command area of the project is already under intensive rubber

cultivation. In addition to that the rice fields, to be irrigated by the project is gradually

being converted into garden lands for housing and cash crop cultivation.

Table 5.20 Proiect details of MVIP -

5.3.1.2 Drinking water supply and Kerala

- No.

1

2

3

4

Throughout history, one of the major determinants of successful societies have been

their ability to provide a safe and reliable supply of water for their members.

Techniques to do so have continually evolved in each societies and cultures since the

inception of mankind and civilization. With the growth of population demand for

water is also grown. Unfortunately much of the world including Kerala faces daily

problems in obtaining water for domestic purposes. Over one billion of the world's

Particulars

Length of the river

Catchment area

Annual yield '

Source: Kerala Economic Review 1996

Annual utilization water

5.4 billion people lack access to safe drinking water. This vital resource, critical for

human survival, has been wasted, mismanaged and overused for decades and the

result is a severe crisis.

Quantity

121 km.

2004 sq. km.

3814 million cubic meters

1812 million cubic meters

Improving the adequacy and quality of water supplies is a priority of a government,

because inadequate water supply can harm to health, economic productivity and

quality of life. Kerala state has always been endowed with both surface and ground

water resources. The bountiful rainfall the state receives every year is responsible for

the prosperity and well being of the state.

The requirement of drinking water has steadily increased for the last few decades.

Per capita requirement of water was less than 30 litres per day but the requirement

has jumped up to 300 litres per day per capita, and this appears to be a very limited

and judicious use of water by the current generation.

Kerala has been facing severe shortage of water for the last few decades. A

continuous drought as it experience now year after year is quite unprecedented in the

history of Kerala. By the end of north-east monsoon in October-November, water

sources starts getting dried up and tlie state enters into the grip of water shortage. The

drought will be very evident from the beginning of the New Year and reaches peak

during March-Apnl and almost all sources of water would be dried by mid of April.

In the absence of non-seasonal rain, idamazha in local language, the intensity of

drought will be very high.

The severity of the drought will be experienced in all phases of life. Topsoil will be

absolutely dried up making impossible any agricultural operation. Drinking water

shortage is one of the most crucial problems. Cities as well as villages face acute

shortage of water. The regular water supply through household and stand post

connection would be disturbed during the period due to shortage of water.

Emergency drought relief programmes have been introduce both in villages and towns

to address the water crisis during the summer. This include cleaning of public wells

and make it usable, supply of dnnking water through tankers, carriers etc.

'The emerging drought relief operations are vested with local administrative bodies

such as yama panchayats, municipalities and corporations. Industries are also being

affected by severe shortage of water. In 1996, a number of industries that require

large quantity of water for their production was closed down or reduced production

due to shortage of water. HNL Velloor that takes 50,000 cubic meter of water daily

from Muvattupuzha River has considerably reduced its production operation because

of shortage of water during March-May 1996. Travancore Cements also from

Kottayam district had a partial shutdown owing to shortage of water.

205

5.3.1.3 Drinking Water - Mainstream Approach

Provision of Safe and protected dnnking water supply falls under the responsibility of

the state. One of the major institutional outfits of the state to meet this particular

objective is the Kerala Water Authority (KWA). KWA has its own infrastructure and

facilities for supplying drinking water. This system is backed by huge capital

investments, spent on processing plants, infrastructure for distribution.

KWA has been following a 'supply'-oriented pattern in water distribution rather than

a demand-oriented one. The real demand of dnnlung water of a place is not been

studied properly nor the inherent potential of the place to supply the requirement.

The three physiographic divisions-low land, mid-land and high land are endowed

with different levels of water availability. The quality of water also varies across the

three divisions. A detailed study on surface and ground water potential of Kerala is

given in the earlier chapter.

The low land area is abundant in water resource but hardly been used for drinking

purpose because of saline intrusion. The ground water is also affected by salinity.

Mid-land is with abundant water sources with good quality of ground water. Though

there are water sources and ground water potential in high land, this region is

vulnerable to water scarcity. In fact the real demand and need for supply of drinking

water in this three divisions are different and supply of water by KWA is not appears

to be according to this principle. A study53 by World Bank on demand of improved

water source for household in Kerala shows that households living in areas with

saline groundwater were 30 per cent more likely to use the facility even in the case of

slightly higher premium than the households in areas with good quality ground water.

The claim by ICWA about physical achievement in providing drinking water to the

public is moderate. According to official statistics, "the per cent of rural population

covered on 3 1-3-1 996 was 47% and that of urban population is 74%. 5.08 lakhs of

house connections were given ti11 '1995 under piped water supply scheme of the

KWA. Taps on stand posts that are the means of distribution of drinking water for

public numbered 1 09 lakhs during the period. Each stand post is expected to serve a

population of 250 j4

Rural water supply

As on 31-12-1996, protected water supply was provided to 101.28 lakhs of rural

population. There are 1402 rural water supply schemes in operation. An estimate in

1995 shows that out of 1219 villages of the state 1190 villages are affected by water

shortage problem. it is interesting to the note the actual coverage of drinking water

despite the claim of 43% coverage in rural areas. Table 5.21 shows the coverage

position of drinking water in villages.

Table 5.21 Coverage position of drinking water in villages

Source: 1:'conornlc Kevlew, 1996.

District level detalls on coverage of villages are given in Table 5.22. Out of the rural

population of 2,13,55,000 an estimated moderate number of 83,34,000 is covered by

the water supply schemes. The per cent of rural population are covered is 39.02.

Table 5.22 District-wise population covered by rural water supply scheme

1 1 12 13 14

Source: Economic Review, 1996

Urban water supply

Coverage and efficiency of water supply is more in urban areas than the rural areas.

Out of the total 76.8 lakhs urban population, total urban population benefited stood at

56.92 lakhs. Ths will constitute 74.15% of the total urban population. As on 1-4-

1996 there were forty-three water supply schemes working in urban areas. The

district-wise details of coverage of urban population are given in Table 5.23.

23.48 25.00 20.02 31.43 39.02

Kozhikode Wayanad Kannur Kasargod

Total

89 3 1 88 62

1,219

1,610 648

1,099 94

21,355

378 162 220 281

8,334

Table 5.23 District-wise population covered by urban water supply scheme - 1995-96

Source: Economic Review. 1996

5.3.2 Financial flow and expansion of water distribution

2,56,750 2,38,334 5,96,850

11,500 5,77,505 2,28,850

9 10 -- 11 12 13 14

The expenditure of Kerala Water Authority is increasing steadily. In 1995-96 the

Palakkad Malappuram Kozhikode Wayanad Kannur Kasargod

figure has reached 265.68 crores. Year-wise expenditure is given in Table 5.24

Table 5.24 Ex~enditure of Kerala Water Authoritv ~ - - -,

An analysis of the different components of expenditure would show that the operation

No. I Year

4 -

5

and maintenance cost and establishment charges constitutes forty per cent of the total

Expenditure (Rs. in lakhs)

expenditure in 1995-96. The repayment burdens alone constitute Rs. 31.08 crores

Source: Economrc Revrew, 1996.

1994-95

1995-96

that was 11.6 per cent of the total expenditure during the period.

20058.80 - 26568.25

The per capita cost of providing water supply in Kerala is between Rs. 1500 and 2000

in rural sector and Rs. 2500 and Rs. 3000 in urban area. Water tariff collected from

the household consumers is very low in Kerala.

According to Slngh et al. (1992) state and central government are following a policy,

"Some for all rather than more for some" in dnnking water supply.s5 It is quiet

imperative when governments are moving towards the goal of 'welfare state' but the

problem of water scarcity in Kerala and the need for water supply in the state have to

be looked from a different standpoint.

Rural water supply appears to be irrelevant in mid-land and high land except very few

places. The rural water supply scheme already introduced and installed in these areas

are appears to be inefficient, inoperative and are even counterproductive. The case

study that follows in next chapter will reflect into the micro level realties of the

drinking water supply. In fact the real demand for dnnking water in various parts of

the state and the inherent potential of a place to supply it has not been properly

studied in the planning of drinking water projects.

World Bank study report on the demand of water in rural areas says, "Two

observations motivated the investigation reported in this article: (a) both approaches

concentrate on supply to the neglect of demand, and (b) neither has successfully

solved the problem-the empirical evidence is that many of the water systems

established according to these paradigms are either not functioning at all or not being

Many of the drinking water projects are the works of shortsighted politicians

who play the game of 'tangibility' for elections that comes regularly at an interval of

five years. Many projects developed as part of "emergency drought relief scheme"

are kept uncommissioned for more than ten years expecting new election.

Of the three physiographic regions of the state drinking water problems of the low

land areas are more acute. Lowland areas spread through twelve districts of Kerala is

given in the Table 5.25.

The total low land area of the state constitutes 3.9 lakh hectares, which is only

10.24% of the total area of the state. But the density of population is very high and it

is 1385 persons per square kilometres which 184% of the average density of

population of the state.

6 idukki 7 Ernakulam

Table 5.25 District and taluk level area of low land (area in hectares) SI. No. District Taluk Area

1 ~hiruvanantha~uram 1) Chirayinkil 3,488 2) Thiruvananthapuram 7,911

1 1,399 2 Kollam 1 ) Karunagappally 19,222

' 2) Kollam 17,440 36,662

3 Pathanamthitta 1) Thiruvalla 4889 4 Alappuzha 1) Cherthala* 32.043

2) Ambalapuzha* 17.882 3) Kuttanad* 26,593 4) Chengannur 8,646 5) Mavelikkara 5,535 6) Karthikapaily * 22,461

1,13,160 1) Vaikom 17,966 2) Kottayam 17,784 3) Changanassery 4,080

39,830 -

1) Parur* 19,163 2) Kochi* 14,086 3) Kanayannur 24,501

57,750 8 Thrissur 1) Thrissur 10,81 I

2) Chavakkad 20,183 3) Kodungallur 12,512 4) Mukundapuram 3,083

46,544 9 Palakkad -

10 Malappuram 1) T i ~ r 6,546 2) Ponnani 3.853

10,399 1 1 Kozhikode 1) Vadakara 26,721

2) Koyilandi 9.033 3) Kozhikode 533

36,287 12 Wayanad - 13 Kannur 1 ) Kannur 12,724

2) Taiiparambu 2,999 15,723

14 Kasargod 1) Hosdurg 19.206

Source: Land Resources ofKerala State, 1995. * Entire taluk area

Corresponding figure of density of population in high land and mid-land are 172 and

778 people per sq. km. respectively.

Requirement of dnnking water for the twenty-six per cent of population who inhabits

in ten per cent of land is a serious issue especially during summer. Water percolation

and retention ability of the sandy soil in the region is very poor and traditional

approach of depending dug wells as'in mid-land and high land is not fully applicable

for all seasons in low land. Apart from that salinity in water makes it unusable.

Drinking water issue in the special problem zone areas that is an integral part of the

low land is much worse. All the four geographical tracts of the special zone are

having the problem of saline intrusion though there are lakes and number of rivers

guarding the region. Table 5.26 shows the low-lying areas of the special zone.

Table 5.26 Low lvina areas of Kerala . -

Poklali / Paravoor and Kunnathunad I Ernakulam I I

Kuttanad

Districts

Alappuzha and Kollam

Tract

Onattukara

The zone comprises of parts of districts of Alappuzha, Kottayam, Ernakulam,

Taluks

Karthikappally, Mavelikkara and Karunagappally

Kuttanad. Ambalapuzha, Cherthala, Vaikom, Changanacherry, Kottayal

Thalappilly, Mukundapuram, Thrissur, Chavakkadu and Ponnani /n.

Thrissur, Malappuram is covering an area of 428.54 sq. krn. The area supports a

Alappuzha and Kottayam

Thrissur and Malappuram

population of 49.15 lakhs. Apart from other regions of low lami severity of the

Source: Keralu Sttrte Resource BasedPerspective Plan A. D. 2020, 1997.

drinking water shortage 1s more in the Kuttanad zone. Human habitations are

concentrated only in twenty-five to thirty per cent of area of Kuttanad. The rest of the

place is paddy fields and waterways. A study by KSSP (1992) shows that in rural

areas of Kuttanad, twenty-seven per cent of the people are fetching water from public

taps." Fifty-three per cent of the population are having dug wells of their own. Only

five per cent of the population is depending private water connection. Rest are taking

water from common places like rivers, lakes and ponds. A study by CWRDM'*

shows that density of dug wells in the coastal belt varies between 90-285 wells per sq.

km. with an average of density of about 200 wells per sq. km. But in cities sixty-five

percent of the population is depending on public water distribution system of which

tlurty-seven per cent have own water connection.

In low lands, though dug wells are densely located it cannot be fully relied for

drinking water purposes across all seasons. During summer season salinity intrusion,

called oru vellum, in local language makes it impossible to drink. Studies show that

salt, iron and hydrogen sulphide etc. are making infiltration into the wells through

sands and it is quite unsafe to drink.

Many of the wells in the sandy soil (in low land) are badly affected in the floods and

heavy rains. Floodwater contaminates the well water and makes it unsafe to dnnk.

Inadequate latrine facility in the thickly populated low land affects the water quality.

It is to note that many diseases found in Kuttanad and similar low land areas are the

result of the use of unhygienic drinking water.

So the real demand of water in low land region varies according to seasons and

efficient management of available water resource fiom different sources can solve the

problem in the low land in general and the special zone in particular. Average

monthly rainfall in the state is 253.98 mm. Table 5.27 shows the monthly normal

rainfall in the state

Table 5.27 Normal monthly rainfall. in the state (in mm)

The problems of water resource management are different in all the three

physiographic regions. The problem of water storage is the concern in the mid and

high lands during the monsoon, whereas in the low lands the prime concern is relief.

During the monsoons, dnnking water is a major problem in low lands, and this is only

a problem during summer in the other two regions. Since the water from the mid and

high lands are flowing through the low lands causing floods and other problems,

solution to the water problems in the low land also related to the water management

of high and mid lands.

9 -

10

1 1

12

5.4 Alternative / People's approaches to water resource management

Harnessing water resources posed a serious challenge to the humanEand through out

Source: Statistics for Planning 1993

September

October

November

December

the recorded istory. South India can boast of a very large dam, an engineering marvel

248.51

297.28

162.71

42.35

in those days, known as Grand anaikkattu, built by Karikala Cholan many centuries

ago. Well established networks of wells and canals took care of the water

management in most parts of the state. The water management requirements were

limited in Kerala owing to the state's unique physiography. However, though water

was relatively abundant in the state, the management of it required farsightedness and

thorough understanding of the eco-system. Many complex water harvesting and

management systems have evolved in different parts of the state in the past centuries.

The Homestead farming system, the unique farming system in the state has a

significant bearing on water resource management in the state. Many farming

practices, embedded in the homesteads have directly or indirectly conserved water.

Cropping rotations, particularly in the grey lands, or semi wetlands, particularly the

rotation of different paddy farming systems ensured year round management of water

in such areas. Rotation of rice-rice and vegetables were common in many such areas.

In wet lands, the traditional rotation of virippu, mundakan andpuncha paddy fanning

systems ensured optimum utilisation of water. These systems were well developed,

particularly optimised to the seasonal availability of water. There are a couple of

ingenious systems of farming systems, like the pockaly cultivation in the Emakulam

and Alappuzha dstricts, Kaippadu system in the extreme northern Kerala, worth

mentioning in this context. Both these systems are located in the esturine area

bordering the sea, and are prone to saline water intrusion. These faming systems make

use of the saline water, other wise detrimental to crop growth, for a productive

agriculture. ~ e d a " system, existing in the Trichur district of Kerala and similar

systems existing throughout the midlands of Kerala are wonderful examples of

traditional wisdom in water management. Recent water scarcity in many parts of the

216

mid and hlgh lands of Kerala facilitated the involvement of people in creative steps in

conserving water, though in very small numbers. Check dams constructed across

Bharathappuzha, and Meenachil river are some such examples. A lot of conservation

activities reintroduced through a number of interventions by governmental and non

governmental agencies. Integrated watershed development program is one such

program introduced by the government in an extensive scale.

Notes and References

1. Serageldin, Ismai1(1995), Towards sustainable management of water resources,

IBRD, World Bank, Wshingddn.

2. Agenda 21: The report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development, Rio de Janeiro.

3. Shiva, Vandana et a1.,(1991) Ecology and the Politics of Survival - Conflicts

Over Naturul Resources in India, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 183.

4. Rao, K. L. ( 1995) India's Water Wealth, Orient Longman Ltd., New Delhi.

5 . ibid, p. 1

6 . Panikkassery, Velayudan, 1977), Sancharikalum Charitrakaranmarum. Vol. 111,.

National Book Stall, Kottayam.

7. James, E. J.,(1998), "Water Related Environmental Problems of Kerala," Wafer

Scenurlo of' Kerala, Ed. James et al., The State Committee on Science,

Technology and Environment,Thlmvananthapuram, p. 37.

8. Preceedings of the Seminar on Resource Potential of Kerala, held at Calicut, 19-

20 December, 1987, STEC & CWRDM, p. 125.

9. Kerala Stare Resource Based Perspective Plan for 2020 AD,

Thimvananthapuram: Kerala State Land Use Board, 1997, p. 8.

10. Pacey, Arnold and Cullis, Adrian,(1986), Rain Water Harvesting: The Collection

of Rain Wuter and run off in Rural Areas, London: Intermediate Technology

Publications, p. 7.

218

1 I . Rudkivi (1979), cited by Pacey and Cullis, ibid.

12. Water Hhrvesling, Proceedings of South African Development Co-Ordination

Conference (SADCC), held at Namibia, 1993, p. 33.

13. ibid

14 Zon, R ,(1927), boresrs and Water rn the Lrght of Screntific Invesfrgution,

Government Pnnt~ng Office, Washmgton

15. Land Resources of Kerala State, Thiruvananthapwam: Kerala State Land Use

Board, 1995, p. 114.

16. Proceedings ofthe Seminar on Resource Potential of Kerala, op cit., p. 140.

17. Shiva, Vandana et al. (1991), op cit., p. 61.

18. Lal, J . B.,(1989), India's Forest: W t h s and Reality. Nataraj Publishers, Dehra

Doon, 1989, p. 12,

19. ibid., p. 13.

20. Balaknshnan, K. P. and Lalithambika Devi,(1981), "Impact of Population on

Forest Environment of Kerala," Proceedings of the Seminar on Status of

Envrronmeri~ul Sludies in India, p. 271.

21. Hughes, J . I;. (1947), cited by Lal, J. B., op cif.

22. Nicholson, J . S. (1930), cited by Lal, J. B., op cit.

23. Patterson, S. S. (1956), cited by Lal, J. B., op cit.

24. Rakhmanov (1966), cited by Lal, J. B., op cit.

25. Lal, J . B. (1989), op cit., p. 66.

26. Zon, R. (1927), op cit.

27. Kitlredge (1948), cited by Lal, J. B., op cit.

28. Lal, J . B. (1989), op cit., p. 139.

29. Ghosh, R. C. The Protective Role of Forestly to the Land, Paper presented in the

X Commonwealth Forestry Conference, London, 1974.

30. Ward and Conner, Memoir of the Survey of the Truvancore and Cochin States,

1869, Thimvananthapuram: Kerala Gazetteers Department (rpt. 1994), p. 40.

3 1. Chandran, Satheesh, (199 I), Vettan Eniyum Kadundo?, Tree Lovers' Society,

Kottayam.

32. Nair, Satheesh Chandran,(1987), "Wasting the Wealth of Western Ghats," India's

Env;ronmental C'risis and Responses, Ed. Bandopadhyay, I . , Nataraj Publishers,

Dehra Door~.

33. Aiya, Nagam, (1906), The Travancore State Manual, Govt. of Kerala, p. 16.

34. Nair, Satheesh Chandran (1987), op cit.

35. Malthy, Edward,(1986), Waterlogged Wealth: Why Waste the World's Wet

Places? Earthscan Papberback.

36. Cowardin (1979), cited in Patnaik, Lopamudra (1992), Conservation of Wetlands

An Economic Assessment ofLake Chilika (Orissa), Unpublished dissertation for

Master of Philosophy of Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, p. 20.

37. Loms and Milne, M.(1964), Water and Life,. Times of India Press, Bombay.

220

38. Malayalum Lexrcon (1970), Vol. 111. Thiruvananthapuram: University of

KeraIa, p. 104.

39. Agricultural Statistics in Kerala, (1975), Thiruvananthapuram: Bureau of

Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Kerala,Thimvananthapuram, p. 5.

40. Shankari, Uma and Shaw, Esha, (1993), Water Management Traditions in India,

PPST Foundation, Madras, pp. 7-8.

4 1. Kerula Slate l<esource Based Perspective Plan for 2020 AD, op cit., p. 16

42.Lconomrc l<evrew,(1996), State Planning Board, Govt. of Kerala,

Thiruvananthapuram, pp. 16-17.

43. Parameswaran, M. P., (1997), Krishi Vyuvasthayum Vimarshanangalum,. KSSP,

Thimvananthapuram, p. 17.

44. Santhakumar, V . et al. (1995). "Planning Kerala's Irrigation Projects:

Technological Prejudice and Politics of Hope," Economic and Political Weekly,

28(14), pp. 586-94.

45. Santhak~unar, V , (1997), Institutional Lock-in in Natural Resource Management

The ('use of Water Resources in Kerala, Working paper 276, Centre for

Development Studies, Thimvananthapurarn, p. 4.

46. ibid., p. 8

47. Pillai, P.P., ( 1992) Kerala Economy: Four Decades of Development. Institute for

Planning and Applied Economic Research, John Mathai Centre, University of

Calicut.

221

48. Narayanan, D et a1.(1991), Coconut Development in Kerala: Ex-Post

Evaluarlon, Centre for Development Studies,Thlmvananthap~~m.

49. Kaman, K. P. and Puahpangadan, K. (1989). "Agnculture Stagnation and

Inigation in Kerala," EPW 24: 19.

50. Neno, N. (1990). Public Investments in Irrigation Projects in Kerala: An

Analysts of- Cost and Organisational Structure, Unpublished M.Phi1. Thesis,

Centre for Development Studies, Thimvananthapuram.

51. KSSP (1988). Erghth Plan of Kerala: A Prejhce to the Discussions. Trichur.

52. Economic Review (1996), op cit., p. 66

53. The World Bank Water Research Team, The Demandfor Water in Rural Areas:

Determtnants undPolrcy Implications, Vol. 8, No. 1, January 1993, p. 54.

54. Economtc Review (1996), op cil., p. 142

55. Singh, B. et al., (1992), Rural Water Supply in Kerala, India: How to Emerge

from Low-Level Equilibrium Trap, Water Resource Research, World Bank, 1992.

56. ibid

57. Arnbat, Babu,(1992), Kuttanad: Facts and Fallacy, KSSP,Kozhikode, p. 40.

58. Kerala Sratc Resource BasedPerspective Plan A. D. 2020 (1997), op cit

59. Binopaul, G.D & Thomas, Regi: (1997) The Keda System: Farmers' initiative in

water conservation and management - A case from Kerala. Proceedings of the 3d

FOAM Asia Scientific Conference and General assembly. UAS, Bangalore