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Chapter 5Ethics ♣
Research Ethics: What Are They? Ethical Dilemmas Ethical Guidelines APA Ethical Standards for Research Issues Raised by the APA Code of Ethics Ethics of Animal Research
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5.1 Research Ethics: What Are They?
Definition of “Research Ethics”
A set of guidelines to assist the experimenter in
conducting ethical research
Ethical concerns (Diener & Crandall, 1978)
Relationship Between Society and Science
Professional Issues
Treatment of Research Participants
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5.1.1 Relationship Between Society and Science
Society Government funding of scientific research
Congressional influence on which studies are funded
Corporate ( 財團法人 ) funding of scientific research
Culture
Scientist’s own culturally based interests
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5.1.2 Professional Issues -1
Scientific Misconduct Definition (by OSTP, 2000)
Fabricating, falsifying, or plagiarizing (FFP) the proposing, performing, reviewing, or reporting of research results
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5.1.2 Professional Issues -2 (end)
Scientific Misconduct Other less serious issues
(ex) failing to present data contradicting one’s own work
(ex) changing the design to meet pressure from a funding source
Developing an institutional culture of ethical behavior --best way of combating this. Tab 5.1
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5.1.3 Treatment of Research Participants
Welfare of the research participant was disregarded in favor of science (ex) radiation experiment
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5.2 Ethical Dilemmas
Ethical Dilemma Definition—deciding if the benefit of the research
is greater than the cost to the participants Primary consideration—welfare of the participant
Role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) Review research protocols to assess ethical
acceptability of a study Tab 5.2
Use of the decision-plane model for making decisions Fig 5.1
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5.3 Ethical Guidelines
Respect for Persons and Their Autonomy Beneficence and Nonmaleficence Justice Trust Fidelity and Scientific Integrity
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5.3.1 Respect for Persons and Their Autonomy
An Autonomous Person
Capable of making decisions and following them
Participant’s Informed Consent
Difficulties Limited or diminished capacity to understand Solution: Proxy ( 代理人 )
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5.3.2 Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
Beneficence ( 善行 ) : doing good
Maximize the probability that participants receive some benefit
Nonmaleficence ( 不害 ) : doing no harm
Minimize the probability of harm to the participant
IRB: review
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5.3.3 Justice
All participants receive equal benefits
The research participants benefit as much as nonparticipants
Difficulties:
Can not be known prior to its completion
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5.3.4 Trust
Researchers should establish and maintain a relationship of trust with the research participants.
Compromised Deception Confidentiality ( 匿名,保密 ) not maintained
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5.3.5 Fidelity and Scientific Integrity
Conduct quality research
Truthfully report the research
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5.5 Issues Raised by the APA Code of Ethics
Institutional Approval
Informed Consent
Deception
Debriefing
Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation
Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy
Ethical Issues in electronic research
Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report
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5.5.2 Informed Consent -1
Informed Consent: informing of all aspects of the study that may influence the willingness to volunteer to participate
Dispensing with Informed Consent Fig 5.2 Not necessary (e.g., 人口普查 ) Impossible (e.g., field study) Not reasonably be assumed to create distress or harm
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5.5.2 Informed Consent -2(end)
Informed Consent and Minors
Assent: agreement from a minor to participate
( 同意 ) after appropriate explanation
Passive versus Active Consent
Active: verbally agreeing and signing a form
Passive: (from a parent or guardian)
by not returning the consent form
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5.5.3 Deception -1
Types Active deception – deception by commission
Deliberately misleading by giving false information
Passive deception – deception by omission
Withholding information by not giving all the details
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5.5.3 Deception -2(end)
Objections May cause participants to distrust psychologists Potential for wronging and harming participants Neither objection has occurred Fig 5.3
Alternatives such as role playing are inadequate
Type of studies in which it raises ethical concerns Studies that involve invasion of privacy and/or may
harm the participants
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5.5.4 Debriefing
Debriefing: A postexperimental discussion or interview about the details of the study, including an explanation for the use of any deception
Goal: Dehoaxing & Desensitizing
DehoaxingDebriefing the P about any deception used
DesensitizingElimination any undesirable influence
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5.5.5 Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation
Fig 5.4Back to Chapter Contents
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5.5.6 Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy -1
Privacy
Having control of others access to information about you
Two aspects to privacy (Folkman, 2000)
When and under what circumstances others get your information
You must be able to decline receiving information that you do not want
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5.5.6 Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy -2(end)
Confidentiality
Not revealing information obtained from a research P to anyone outside the research group
Anonymity
Keeping the identity of the research P unknown
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5.5.7 Ethical Issues in electronic research -1
Informed consent Complicated because there is no clear distinction
between what is public and what is private over the internet
How to obtain informed consent Can put a consent to participate form on line
— Does the participant understand it— How do you answer questions about the study
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5.5.7 Ethical Issues in electronic research -2
Privacy and confidentiality Hackers can obtain the data But data can be encrypted ( 譯成密碼 ) and the
only connection to the participant is the IP address
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5.5.7 Ethical Issues in electronic research -3 (end)
Debriefing Difficult to do
If person terminates the study early If connection with the study is broken by computer
crash or power outage Ways to maximize probability of debriefing
Have participant provide an e-mail address Provide a ‘leave the study’ radio button Incorporate a debriefing page into the program so it is
delivered directly to the participant
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5.5.7 Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report -1
Principles to follow Justice—who will be the author(s) Scientific integrity—accurate and honest reporting
Authorship Substantial contribution: conceptualization,
design, execution, analysis, or interpretation of the study
Contribution of a technical nature: acknowledged in a footnote (附註 )
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5.5.7 Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report -2 (end)
Writing the Research Report Presentation should be honest and written with
integrity Avoid plagiarism—not giving another person
credit for their work How to indicate another’s work
— Quotation marks— Indented material (citation)
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5.6 Ethics of Animal Research
Animal Rights
Alternatives to the Use of Animals
Safeguards in the Use of Animals
Animal Research Guidelines
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5.6.4 Animal Research Guideline -1
Focus on animal welfare and not animal right
Animal welfareImproving the lab conditions &
reducing the number of animals used
Animal rightThe belief that
a animals have the rights similar to humans and
should not be used in research
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5.6.4 Animal Research Guideline -2(end)
1. Justification of the Research
2. Personnel
3. Care and Housing of Animals
4. Acquisition of Animals
5. Experimental Procedures (p.173)
6. Field Research
7. Educational Use of Animals
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