Chapter 5: Reactions BetweenIons in Aqueous Solutions
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture inwhich the two or more components mixfreely
• The solvent is taken as the componentpresent in the largest amount
• A solute is any substance dissolved in thesolvent
Formation of a solution ofiodine molecules in ethylalcohol. Ethyl alcohol is thesolvent and iodine thesolute.
Solutions have variablecomposition. They may becharacterized using a solute-to-solvent ratio called theconcentration.
• For example, the percentage concentrationis the number of grams of solute per 100 gof solution
• The relative amounts of solute and solventare often given without specifying theactual quantities
The dilute solution on the lefthas less solute per unit volumethan the (more) concentratedsolution on the right.
Concentrated and dilute arerelative terms.
• There is usually a limit to the amount ofsolute that can dissolve in a given amountof solvent– For example, 36.0 g NaCl is able to dissolve in
100 g of water at 20°C
• A solution is said to be saturated when nomore solute can be dissolved at the currenttemperature
• The solubility of a solute is the number ofgrams of solute that can dissolve in 100grams of solvent at a given temperature
• Solubilities of some common substances
0.0015 at 25°CCaCO3Calcium carbonate
42 at 0°C
347 at 100°C
NaOHSodium hydroxide
35.7 at 0°C
39.1 at 100°C
NaClSodium chloride
Solubility
(g/100 g water)FormulaSubstance
A solution containing less solute is called unsaturatedbecause it is able to dissolve more solute.
• Solubility usually increases withtemperature
• Supersaturated solutions contain moresolute than required for saturation at a giventemperature
• They can be formed, for example, bycareful cooling of saturated solutions
• Supersaturated solutions are unstable andoften result in the formation of aprecipitate
• A precipitate is the solid substance thatseparates from solution
• Precipitates can also form from reactions
• Reactions that produce a precipitate arecalled precipitation reactions
• Many ionic compounds dissolve in water
• Solutes that produce ions in solution arecalled electrolytes because their solutionscan conduct electricity
• An ionic compounds dissociates as itdissolves in water
Ions separate from the solidand become hydrated orsurrounded by watermolecules.
The ions move freely and thesolution is able to conductelectricity.
Ionic compounds that dissolve completely arestrong electrolytes
• Most solutions of molecular compounds donot conduct electricity and are callednonelectrolytes
The molecules of anonelectrolyte separatebut stay intact. Thesolution is nonconductingbecause no ions aregenerated.
Some ionic compounds have low solubilities inwater but are still strong electrolytes because whatdoes dissolve is 100% dissociated.
• The dissociation of ionic compounds maybe described with chemical equations
• The hydrated ions, with the symbol (aq),have been written separately
• Since physical states are often omitted, youmight encounter the equation as:
)(SO )(Na 2 )(SONa -2442 aqaqs +Æ+
-2442 SO Na 2 SONa +Æ
+
• Ionic compounds often react when theiraqueous solutions combine
When asolution ofPb(NO3)2 ismixed witha solution ofKI theyellowprecipitatePbI2 rapidlyforms.
• This reaction may be represented with amolecular, ionic, or net ionic equation:Molecular:
Ionic:
Net Ionic:
• The most compact notation is the net ionicequation which eliminates all the non-reacting spectator ions from the equation
)(2KNO)(PbI)2KI()()Pb(NO 3223 aqsaqaq +Æ+
)(2NO)(2K)PbI2(
)(2I)(2K)(2NO)(Pb-3
--3
2
aqaqs
aqaqaqaq
++
Æ++++
++
)(PbI )(2I)(Pb 22 saqaq Æ+ -+
• Criteria for balanced ionic and net ionicequations:
1) Material balance – the same number of eachtype of atom on each side of the arrow
2) Electrical balance – the net electrical chargeon the left side of the arrow must equal thenet electrical charge on the right side of thearrow
Remember that the charge on an ion must be includedwhen it is not in a compound. Adding the charges on allthe ions on one side of the arrow gives the net electricalcharge.
• In the reaction of Pb(NO3)2 with KI thecations and anions changed partners
• This is an example of a metathesis ordouble replacement reaction
• Solubility rules allows the prediction ofwhen a precipitation reaction will occur
• For many ionic compounds the solubilityrules correctly predict whether the ioniccompound is soluble or insoluble
• Solubility rules for ionic compounds inwater:– Soluble Compounds
.Ba and ,Hg
,Sr ,Ca ,Pb of those soluble are sulfates All 4)
.Hg and ,Pb ,Ag with combined
when soluble are Ior ,Br ,Cl containing salts All 3)
soluble. are
OHC and ,ClO ,ClO ,NO ,NH containing salts All 2)
soluble. are IA) (Group metals alkali theof compounds All 1)
222
222
22
2
---
-232
-3
-4
-34
++
+++
+++
+
except
except
– Insoluble compounds
• A knowledge of these rules will allow youto predict a large number of precipitationreactions
.NH andIA Group of those
insoluble, are S and ,SO ,CO ,POcontain that salts All 6)
in water.exist not does ,O ion, oxide The .hydroxides
form water toreact with they dissolve, do oxides
metal When .Ba and ,Sr ,Ca of andIA Group of
those insoluble are oxides and hydroxides metal All 5)
4
-2-23
-23
-34
-2
222
+
+++
except
except
• Acids and bases are another important classof compounds
• Acids and bases affect the color of certainnatural dye substances
• They are called acid-base indicatorsbecause they indicate the presence of acidsor bases with their color
• The first comprehensive theory of acids,bases, and electrical conductivity appearedin 1884 in the Ph.D. thesis of SavanteArrhenius
• He proposed that acids form hydrogen ionsand bases released hydroxide ions insolution
• The characteristic reaction between acidsand bases is neutralization HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ‡ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
• In general, the reaction of an acid and abase produces water and a salt
• We can state the Arrhenius definition ofacids and bases in updated form
• In general, acids are molecular compoundsthat react with water to produce ions
• This is called ionization:
in water.ion hydroxide produces that substance a isA
.OH ion, hydronium the
produce r to with watereacts that substance a is An
Bases and Acids of Definition Arrhenius
3
base
acid+
)(Cl )(OH OH )HCl( -32 aqaqg +Æ++
• It is common to encounter the hydrogen ion(H+) instead of the hydronium ion
• The previous ionization is also written as
• Monoprotic acids are capable of furnishingonly one hydrogen ion per molecule
• Acids that can furnish more than onehydrogen ion per molecule are calledpolyprotic acids
)(Cl )(H )HCl( -OH2 aqaqg +ææÆæ +
• Some nonmetal oxides react with water toproduce acids
• They are called acidic anhydrides(anhydride means without water)
)(PO)(OHOH)(HPO
)(HPO)(OHOH)(POH
)(POH)(OHOH)(POH :Triprotic
)(CO)(OHOH)(HCO
)(HCO)(OHOH)(COH :Diprotic
)(Cl)(OHOH)HCl( :Monoprotic
-3432
-24
-2432
-42
-423243
-2332
-3
-33232
-32
aqaqaq
aqaqaq
aqaqaq
aqaqaq
aqaqaq
aqaqaq
+Æ+
+Æ+
+Æ+
+Æ+
+Æ+
+Æ+
+
+
+
+
+
+
• Soluble metal oxides are base anhydrides
• Examples include:
hydroxide sodium )2NaOH(OH)O(Na
hydroxide calcium )(Ca(OH)OH)CaO(
:Oxides Metal
acid carbonic )(COHOH)(CO
acid nitric )(2HNOOH)(ON
acid sulfuric )(SOHOH)(SO
:Oxides Nonmetal
22
22
3222
3252
4223
aqs
aqs
aqg
aqg
aqg
Æ+
Æ+
Æ+
Æ+
Æ+
• Ammonia gas ionizes in water producinghydroxide ions
• It is an example of a molecular base
• Many molecules that contain nitrogen canact as a base
)(OH)(HBOH)(B
:B base general For the
)(OH)(NHOH)(NH
2
-423
aqaqaq
aqaqaq
-+
+
+Æ+
+Æ+
• Binary compounds of many nonmetals andhydrogen are acidic
• In water solution these are referred to asbinary acids
• They are named by adding the prefix hydro-and the suffix –ic to the stem of thenonmetal name, followed by the word acid
ic acidhydroaqg
ic acidhydroaqg
sulfur )S(H sulfidehydrogen )S(H
chlor )HCl( chloridehydrogen )HCl(
AcidBinary CompoundMolecular
22
• Acids that contain hydrogen, oxygen, plusanother element are called oxoacids
• They are named according to the number ofoxygen atoms in the molecule and do nottake the prefix hydro-
• When there are two oxoacids, the one withthe larger number of oxygens takes thesuffix –ic and the one with the feweroxygen atoms takes the suffix –ous
• The halogen can occur with up to fourdifferent oxoacids
• The oxoacid with the most oxygens has theprefix per- the one with the least has theprefix hypo-
ous acidous acid
ic acidic acid
nitr HNO sulfur SOH
nitr HNO suflur SOH
232
342
ic acidperous acid
ic acidous acidhypo
chlor HClO chlor HClO
chlor HClO chlor HClO
42
3
• Anions are produced when oxoacids areneutralized
• There is a simple relationship between thename of the polyatomic ion and the parentacid
1) –ic acids give –ate ions
2) -ous acids give –ite ions
• In naming polyatomic anions, the prefixesper- and hypo- carry over from the parentacid
• Polyprotic acids can be neutralized
• An acidic salt contains an anion that iscapable of furnishing additional hydrogenions
• The number of hydrogens that can still beneutralized is also indicated
phosphate dihydrogen sodium PONaH
phosphatehydrogen sodium HPONa
sulfatehydrogen sodium NaHSO
42
42
4
• Naming bases is much less complicated
• Ionic compounds containing metal ions arenamed like any other ionic compound
• Molecular bases are specified by giving thename of the molecule
• Acids and bases can be classified as strongor weak and so as strong or weakelectrolytes
• Strong acids are strong electrolytes
• The most common strong acids are:
• Strong bases are the soluble metalhydroxides
acid sulfuric )(SOH
acid nitric )(HNO
acid hydroiodic )HI(
acid chydrobromi )HBr(
acid ichydrochlor )HCl(
acid perchloric )(HClO
42
3
4
aq
aq
aq
aq
aq
aq
• These include:
• Most acids are not completely ionized inwater
• They are classified as weak electrolytes
hydroxide barium Ba(OH) hydroxide cesium CsOH
hydroxide strontium Sr(OH) hydroxide rubidium RbOH
hydroxide calcium Ca(OH) hydroxide potassium KOH
hydroxide sodium NaOH
hydroxide lithium LiOH
IIA Group IA Group
2
2
2
The brightnessof light isexperimentalverification oftheclassificationas a strong orweakelectrolyte.
Weak acids and bases are weak electrolytesbecause less than 100% of the molecules ionize.
• Weak acids and bases are in dynamicequilibrium in solution
• Consider the case of acetic acid:
Two opposing reactionsoccur in solution: theionization of the acid,called the forwardreaction, and therecombination of ions intomolecules, called thereverse reaction.
Chemical or dynamic equilibrium results when the rate of theforward and reverse reaction are equal.
• Neutralization of a strong acid with strongbase gives a salt and water:
• This net ionic equation applies only tostrong acids and bases
• The neutralization of a weak acid with astrong base involves a strong and weakelectrolyte
OH)(OH)(H :ionicNet
)(Cl)(KOH)(OH)(K)(Cl)(H :Ionic
OH)KCl()KOH()HCl( :Molecular
2-
-2
--
2
Æ+
++Æ+++
+Æ+
+
+++
aqaq
aqaqaqaqaqaq
aqaqaq
• Consider the neutralization of acetic acidwith NaOH:
• Note that in ionic equations the formulas ofweak electrolytes are written in “molecular”form
OH)(OHC)(OH)(OHHC :ionicNet
OH)(OHC)(Na
)(OH)(Na)(OHHC :Ionic
OH)(OHNaC)NaOH()(OHHC :Molecular
2-232
-232
2-232
-232
2232232
+Æ+
++
Æ++
+Æ+
+
+
aqaqaq
aqaq
aqaqaq
aqaqaq
• The situation is similar when a strong acidreacts with a strong base
• For ammonia and HCl the net ionicequation is:
• Note that water only appears as a product ifthe hydronium ion is used
OH )(NH )(OH )(NH
or
)(NH )(H )(NH
2433
43
+Æ+
Æ+
++
++
aqaqaq
aqaqaq
• Both strong and weak acids react withinsoluble hydroxides and oxides
• The driving force is the formation of water
• Magnesium hydroxide has a low solubilityin water, but reacts with strong acid
• The net ionic equation is:
• Magnesium hydroxide is written as a solidbecause it is insoluble
OH2 )(Mg )(H 2 )(Mg(OH) 22
2 +Æ+++ aqaqs
• A number of metal oxides also dissolve inacids
• For example, iron(III) oxide reacts withhydrochloric acid:
• Some reactions with acids or bases producea gas
• The reactions are driven to completionbecause the gas escapes and is unavailablefor back reaction
O3H)(2Fe)(6H)(OFe :ionicNet
O3H)(2FeCl)6HCl()(OFe :Molecular
23
32
2332
+Æ+
+Æ+++ aqaqs
aqaqs
(CO2 and SO2 are produced by the decompositionof H2CO3 and H2SO3, respectfully)
OHNHOHNH Salts Ammonium NH
OHSOHSOH SulfitesHydrogen
OHSOSO2H Sulfites SO
OHCOHCOH CarbonatesHydrogen
OHCOCO2H Carbonates CO
HCNCNH Cyanides HCN
SHS2H Sulfides SH
Equation IonicNet Compounds Gas
23-
43
22-2
3
22-2
32
22-3
22-2
32
-
2-2
2
+Æ+
+Æ+
+Æ+
+Æ+
+Æ+
Æ+
Æ+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
• Solutions are characterized by theirconcentration
• The molar concentration or molarity (M)is defined as
• The molarity of a solution gives anequivalence relation between the moles ofsolute and volume of solution
solution of literssolute of moles (M)molarity =
• Solutions provide a convenient way tocombine reactants in many chemicalreactions– Example: How many grams of AgNO3 are
needed to prepare 250 mL of 0.0125 M AgNO3solution?
ANALYSIS: Find moles, then mass of solute.
SOLUTION:
3
AgNO molAgNO g 169.9
sol AgNO L 1.00AgNO mol 0.0125
3
AgNO g 531.0
sol AgNO L 0.2503
3
3
3
=
¥¥
• Solutions of high concentration can bediluted to make solutions of lowerconcentration
• Conservation of solute mass requires:
• Where dil labels the diluted and concd theconcentrated solution
• Stoichiometry problems often requireworking with volumes and molarity
concdconcddildil M V MV ¥=¥
– Example: How many mL of 0.124 M NaOH arerequired to react completely with 15.4 mL of0.108 M H2SO4?
2 NaOH + H2SO4 ‡ Na2SO4 + 2H2O
ANALYSIS: Use the mole-to-mole ratio toconvert.
SOLUTION:
sol NaOH mL 8.26
sol SOH L 0.0154
L 1mL 1000
NaOH mol 0.124sol NaOH L 1.00
SOH mol 1NaOH mol 2
sol SOH L 1.00SOH mol 0.108
42 424242
=¥¥
¥¥
• Limiting reagent problems are also common– Example: How many moles of BaSO4 will form
if 20.0 mL of 0.600 M BaCl2 is mixed with30.0 mL of 0.500 M MgSO4?
BaCl2 + MgSO4 ‡ BaSO4 + MgCl2ANALYSIS: This is a limiting reagent problem.
SOLUTION:
formed BaSO mol 0.0120
BaSO mol 0150.0sol MgSO L 0300.0
BaSO mol 0120.0 sol BaCl L 0.0200
4
4MgSO mol 1BaSO mol 1
sol MgSO L 1.00MgSO mol 0.500
4
4BaCl mol 1BaSO mol 1
sol BaCl L 1.00BaCl mol 0.600
2
4
4
4
4
2
4
2
2
\
=¥¥
=¥¥
• Titration is a technique used to makequantitative measurements of the amountsof solutions
• The end-point is often determined visually
The long tube iscalled the buret. Thevalve at the bottom ofthe buret is called thestopcock. Thetitration is completewhen the indicatorchanges color.
• Paths for working stoichiometry problemsmay be summarized with a flowchart:
