CHAPTER –5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION -...

CHAPTER –5

RESULTS

AND

DISCUSSION

CHAPTER-5

Results and Discussion

After data collection and scoring of the quantitative responses elicited

through psychological testing measures, the next important step is to analyze

the quantitative data in accordance with the requirements of the hypothesis

formed with the help of an appropriate statistical device.

In the present study, the role of some psychosocial variables was

investigated in order to predict the level of emotional intelligence among

adolescent sample. The psychosocial variables include aggression, self

concept, extraversion, neuroticism, home environment and social support, sex

and locale. While emotional intelligence along with its different dimensions

was taken as dependent variable. The data was collected from both male and

female subjects, belonging to both urban and rural locales. For the purpose of

data analysis, the whole study was divided into two parts. Part-A deals with

the analysis of obtained data by applying 2x2x2 factorial design which is

further divided into six separate studies as analyzing all the six independent

variables with reference to emotional intelligence, and Part-B of the study

presents the results obtained by employing stepwise multiple regression

analysis. Before processing the data through ANOVA statistic, it was necessary that

the basic assumption of ANOVA should be satisfied. There are two basic

assumptions as under:-

1. Normality of the distribution of criterion measure: This assumption

states that the distribution of the scores within each treatment

population is normal.

2. Homogeneity of variance: under this assumption the variance of the

scores in each of the treatment group should be homogeneous.

So far as the first assumption is concerned, it is satisfied because the

samples are randomly selected from the population and the size of the sample

is relatively large. In this connection, it is worthwhile to mention the

statement of Gravetter and Wallnau (1987) who have suggested that the first

assumption i.e. normality of distribution, is satisfied easily and is not a cause

for concern in most research. When there is a reason to suspect that the

populations are far from normal in shape, it may be compensated by ensuring

that the samples are relatively large i.e. n around 30 or more (p. 347). Testing

the homogeneity of variance is important before processing ANOVA statistic.

Accordingly the data of the different six parts of the studies, the present

research was examined for the homogeneity of variance through Levene’s

test. The summary of all parts of the study and obtained results are shown in

the following table:-

Table (1) Summary of the Levene’s test of equality of error variances for

different six parts of the study of Part-A S.No. Study df1 df2 F-

value Level of

significance 1. Part (1)

Aggression x Sex x Locale 7 552 0.389 0.909 (Ns)

2. Part (2) Self concept x Sex x Locale

7 552 0.928 0.484 (Ns)

3. Part (3) Extraversion x Sex x Locale

7 552 1.833 0.079 (Ns)

4. Part (4) Neuroticism x Sex x Locale

7 552 1.746 0.096 (Ns)

5. Part (5) Home Environment x Sex xLocale

7 552 0.766 0.616 (Ns)

6. Part (6) Social Support x Sex x Locale

7 552 1.414 0.917 (Ns)

(Ns= Not significant)

The observation of the above table (ii) indicates that all of the six

values were insignificant. The insignificant F- value establishes that the

assumption of homogeneity of variance has not been violated. Therefore, it

was thought appropriate to analyze the data through ANOVA statistic.

Results (Part-A)

As per factorial design of 2x2x2, three-way analysis of variance was

performed on the scores of emotional intelligence to ascertain the main and

interaction effects of the independent variables on emotional intelligence. The

obtained data was quantitatively analyzed to test the hypotheses and the

results obtained by the six ANOVAs are presented below as six separate

studies:-

Study (1) Aggression and Emotional Intelligence

In order to examine the role of aggression in predicting emotional

intelligence, the ANOVA statistic was used. Aggression was taken in two

levels i.e. high and low. Subjects were taken from both the sexes and

therefore, sex was also considered as one of the independent variable.

Similarly, as the subjects were taken from two different locales i.e. urban and

rural, therefore locale is also considered as the third independent variable.

For dividing the subjects into low and high ‘aggression’ groups, the

aggression scores of all the subjects (N= 745) were calculated. Afterwards,

37.5% subjects scoring low from the bottom and 37.5% subjects scoring high

from the top (excluding the subjects falling within the semi-interquartile

range) were considered as the subjects of low and high aggression groups

respectively. In this way, the subjects were divided into various sub-groups as

per the requirements of 2x2x2 ANOVA, formed on the basis of aggression,

sex and locale. The average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects

falling in different cells of ANOVA table are presented in table (1.1):-

Table (1.1) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects and S.D

for eight subgroups formed on the basis of aggression, sex and

locale (n in each cell is given in parenthesis)

Sex

Aggression

Low High

Locale Locale

Urban Rural Urban Rural

Male Mean=64.04 Mean=67.58 Mean=62.99 Mean=60.53

S.D.=10.37 S.D.=9.98 S.D.=10.57 S.D=9.18

(n=52) (n=86) (n=77) (n=77)

Female Mean =66.17 Mean =62.38 Mean=62.22 Mean=62.58

S.D=9.99 S.D=9.12 S.D=9.28 S.D=10.82

(n=103) (n=39) (n=74) (n=52)

The first problem undertaken in the present research was to examine

whether subjects showing high level of aggression differ significantly in their

emotional intelligence in comparison of the subjects showing low aggression.

It was hypothesized that subjects scoring high on aggression would show a

low level of emotional intelligence as compared to the subjects showing low

aggression. Figure 1 (i) shows Average emotional intelligence scores of the

subjects of low and high aggression .

Figure 1(i) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of low and

high aggression

It is clear from the above figure 1(i) that the average emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects of low and high aggression are 65.68 and

62.03 respectively. When difference of these two groups were tested in F-test,

the obtained F-ratio was found to be significant at very high level (F= 11.450,

p<.01); (table 1.2).

Table (1.2) Summary of the three-way analysis of variance for the data of

table (1.1)

Source of variation Sum of

Squares

df Mean

Square

F-

Ratio

Sig.

Aggression (A) 1127.192 1 1127.192 11.450 *0.01

Sex (B) 25.557 1 25.557 0.260 Ns

Locale (C) 43.870 1 43.870 0.446 Ns

Aggression xSex

(AxB)

150.366 1 150.366 1.527 Ns

Aggression x Locale

(AxC)

27.296 1 27.296 0.277 Ns

Sex x Locale (BxC) 163.382 1 163.382 1.660 Ns

Aggx Sex x Locale

(AxBxC)

824.392 1 824.392 8.374 0.05**

Within cell (SSw) 54340.327 552 98.443

Total 57366.57 559 (* P<0.01,**P<0.05, Ns=Not significant)

The significant F-ratio indicates that aggression has a significant main

effect on emotional intelligence and it plays a significant role in predicting

the emotional intelligence of the subjects. Also, the figure 1(i) indicates that

subjects scoring low aggression possess high level of emotional intelligence

in comparison of their counterparts. The significant F-ratio therefore,

confirms the hypothesis stating that “the subjects scoring high on aggression

would show a lower level of emotional intelligence as compared to the

subjects showing low aggression”. This finding is in consonance with the

results obtained from the studies of Hyken and Barchard (2003), Bohnert,

Crnic and Lim (2004), who have concluded that less ability to identify the

causes of emotion is related with high aggression. In this connection, Leonard

(2005), Mestre et al. (2006) and Burton, Haftez, and Henninger (2007) have

also found that, lower ratings of conflicts and hostility is associated with high

emotional intelligence and higher physical aggression is associated with a

lower emotional intelligence. Furthermore, the conclusions drawn by Singh

and Saini (2007) have also supported the hypothesis, by reporting that,

persons who are self-motivated, emotionally stable and less prone to

aggressive behavior. Those who are better in managing the relations are less

aggressive and hostile; and those persons having emotional stability show

less aggression.

Aggression has been largely associated with maladaptive behavior,

anger, and violence, resulting in various psychosocial problems. Studies have

been represented aggression as a causal factor of major behavioral

dysfunctions. It results into disturbed interpersonal relationships, self-harm,

homicides, violent crimes, workplace violence, youth violence and other sorts

of socially deviant behaviors (Waters et al., 2004). To overcome these

problems a person has to be skilled in managing and regulating his or her

emotions, as aggressive behavior is a result of poor emotional regulation and

impulsiveness. Therefore, a person who possess good emotional intelligence

skills must overcome his impulsiveness and aggression. Various components

of emotional intelligence like, self-regulation, self-management, optimism,

empathy, impulse control, stress tolerance and adaptability, stands for better

adjustment of a person to the society and also with himself. The findings of

the present study indicates the same, that those subjects who have scored a

lower aggression level achieved a higher score of their emotional intelligence

in comparison to those having high aggression. It means that an individual

having low aggression possess better emotional intelligence, that he or she is

capable of being aware of emotions and managing them. Thus it may be

concluded that there is a significant positive relationship between aggression

and emotional intelligence of the individuals. The result is further supported

by the studies reported on empathy and interpersonal aggression (Richardson

et al. 1994). Empathy is one of the important components of emotional

intelligence, as it deals with being aware of emotions of the persons

surrounding us. It is further associated with good social skills. To understand

other’s perspectives and feeling concerned reduces and inhibits the

aggressive behavior. Absence of an adequate amount of emotional

intelligence may lead to aggressiveness and criminality (Sprinthal et al.

1998). Furthermore, Eniola (2007) have also found that emotional

intelligence training show significant improvement in reducing the aggressive

behavior.

The other main effect considered in the present study was to find out

the effect of sex in emotional intelligence.

Figure 1(ii) Average emotional intelligence scores of the male and female

subjects

Figure 1(ii) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the

male and female subjects as 63.88 and 63.83 respectively. It indicates that

female subjects possess lower emotional intelligence than males. However, it

was expected that the male subjects would show a low level of emotional

intelligence as compared to the female subjects. When sex is considered as

one of the main effect, disregarding aggression and locale, it was found that

the F-ratio for sex is 0.260, which is insignificant. The obtained result had

rejected the hypothesis stating that “the male subjects would show a low level

of emotional intelligence as compared to the female subjects”. Similar results

have been reported by Chu (2002), Hunt and Evans (2004), and Mishra and

Ranjan (2008) concluding that males have high emotional intelligence than

females. Tannous and Matar (2010) have also reported that there were no

significant difference found between males and females in either

intrapersonal, interpersonal and adaptability scales of emotional intelligence.

Though it has been highly reviewed that women are mostly nurtured to

be emotionally high, and to be sensitive and caring towards others, may be

due to certain specific biological and socio-cultural conditions. But the

obtained results of the present study regarding sex difference in emotional

intelligence indicate males to be better on the aspects of handling emotions. It

may be due to the transforming Indian society, equal and similar

opportunities that are provided in the family, education and work situations

which have reduced the environmental differences causing variations in

gender. The finding of the present research is in consonance with those of

Bar-On (1997) and Goleman (1998). Bar-On (1997) studied the emotional

intelligence regarding sex difference and found that there was not any

difference between men and women in terms of their total emotional

intelligence. Actually, the difference between males and females in respect of

their emotional intelligence occurs only when we talk about the components

of emotional intelligence, such as women did score significantly higher on

empathy, interpersonal relationships, social responsibility. While men scored

higher on stress tolerance, self-regard, independence, optimism, and problem

solving (Bar-On, 1997). Furthermore Bar-On (2000) theorizes that women

appeared to be more aware of emotions, demonstrate more empathy, relate

better interpersonally and act more socially responsibly than men. Men, on

the other hand, appeared to be able to cope better with stress, sole problems

better, and be more independent, flexible and optimistic than women. Bar-On

also emphasized that, in general when looking at the overall ratings of men

and women, far more similarities exists than differences regarding their

emotional intelligence. Thus in terms of total emotional intelligence, no

gender differences exists (Bar-On, 1998). Goleman (1998) also found that

women were not ‘smarter’ than men in their emotional intelligence, nor are

men superior to women. Each of them had a personal profile of strengths and

weaknesses. Women on average were more aware of their emotions, showed

more empathy and were more adept interpersonally. Some researchers (e.g.

Guastello and Guastello, 2003) have put forth another possible explanation

for gender differences in emotional intelligence having to do with the effect

of generations. Sex roles are currently undergoing change and androgynous

behavior has increased across generations. It would explain why these

differences are being reduced in new generations due to the influence of

culture and education.

Figure1(iii) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects belonging

to rural and urban locales

Locale was considered as the third independent variable. Figure 1(iii)

shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects belonging to

rural and urban locales, as 63.62 and 63.83 respectively. It is quite obvious

from the figure 1(iii) that the rural subjects possess low emotional

intelligence as compared to the urban subjects. However, the difference

between the average scores does not show much variation. When the

difference of these two sub-groups was subjected to F-test in the three-way

ANOVA, the obtained F-ratio= 0.446 is found to be insignificant. Therefore

it may be concluded that locale difference obtained among emotional

intelligence is not statistically significant. Therefore, though the average

emotional intelligence scores for urban and rural locale indicates high value

of mean for urban and low for rural, but due to lack of statistically significant

evidence, it does not confirm the hypothesis stating that “the subjects

belonging to urban locale would show a high level of emotional intelligence

as compared to the subjects belonging to rural locale”. The result is supported

by the findings of Gowdhaman and Murugan (2009), that there is not found

any significant effect of community (locale) on the emotional intelligence.

One of the suitable reasons behind this type of result regarding locale

difference must be attributed to the interaction of the rural and urban societies

and the resultant growth of mutual contacts between peoples of these two

different societies. Moreover, the rural people are slowly but inevitably

influenced by the urban. This results in gradually modifying the mode of life

of the rural people. As many cultural traits are diffused from cities to the rural

areas, ideologies are also diffused from the cities to the rural areas due to

increase in communication via radio, television, newspapers. The urbanism,

which is urban way of life, emerges in the cities and gradually reaches to the

rural areas depending on their proximity to cities. Rural society has been

increasingly urbanized in modern times. With the raise in occupational

diversification, spread of literacy, education, mass communication, continuity

between rural and urban areas has increased. Many modern techniques of

agricultural development and many of the institutional framework for rural

development also generates from the urban centers. The impact of

urbanization and industrialization upon the pattern of rural life, somewhat

bridges the gap between these two different social backgrounds.

In addition to the main effects, the ANOVA technique provides an

advantage to examine the interaction between two or more variables at a

time. These interaction effects are classified as first order interaction and

second order interaction. Hence, in the three-way ANOVA, three first order

interactions between any two factors and one second order interaction among

all the three factors was obtained. Out of the three first order interactions, one

is the interaction between aggression and sex. The average emotional

intelligence scores of four sub-groups formed on the basis of aggression and

sex are shown in table (1.3) and figure 1(iv).

Table (1.3) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects and S.D of

four subgroups form on the basis of aggression and sex (n in

each cell is given in parenthesis)

Sex Aggression

Low High

Male Mean = 66.25 Mean =61.76

SD=10.24 SD=9.91

(n=138) (n=154)

Female Mean =65.13 Mean =62.37

SD=9.87 SD=9.90

(n=142) (n=126)

Figure 1(iv) Aggression x sex interaction profile based on the data of table

(1.3)

As shown in table (1.2) (summary of ANOVA) the interaction between

aggression and sex is found to be insignificant (F-value = 1.527, p>.005). It

further reveals that the difference between the means of low aggression and

high aggression for male subjects is statistically not different from the

difference between the means of low aggression and high aggression for

female subjects. Thus, it can be concluded that aggression x sex interaction is

insignificant. This insignificant interaction reveals that the emotional

intelligence scores of the male and female subjects are not dependent on

difference in low and high aggression. It may also be interpreted as, the

emotional intelligence scores of the low and high aggression subjects are not

dependent on different sexes. In other words, the insignificant F-ratio proved

that both the factors i.e. aggression and sex are independent in exerting their

influences on emotional intelligence.

Another interaction is between aggression and locale. The following

table (table 1.4) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the

subjects of four sub-groups on the basis of aggression and locale.


four subgroups on the basis of aggression and locale (n in each

cell is given in parenthesis)

Aggression

Figure 1(v) Aggression x Locale interaction profile based on the data of

table (1.4)

As shown in table (1.2) the F-ratio of the interaction between

aggression and locale is found to be insignificant (F= 0.277, p>.001). It

Locale Low High

Urban Mean=65.46 Mean=62.61

SD=10.14 SD=9.90

(n=155) (n=151)

Rural Mean=65.96 Mean=61.36

SD=9.98 SD=9.89

(n=125) (n=129)

reveals that the difference between the means of low aggression and high

aggression for urban group of subjects is not statistically different from the

difference between the means of low aggression and high aggression for rural

group of subjects. Thus it can be concluded that aggression x locale

interaction is insignificant. This insignificant interaction reveals that the

emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of low and high aggression sub-

groups are nearly the same as for rural and urban locale. It may also be

referred that effect of low and high aggression on emotional intelligence does

not depend on the difference in rural and urban locale; or the effect of rural

and urban locale on emotional intelligence does not depend on difference in

low and high aggression.

The next first order interaction is between sex and locale. The average

emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of four sub-groups formed on

the basis of sex and locale is shown in the table (1.5) and figure 1(vi).


four subgroups formed on the basis of sex and locale (n in each


Sex Locale

Urban Rural

Male Mean =63.41 Mean=64.25

SD=10.43 SD=10.21

(n=129) (n=163)

Female Mean =64.52 Mean =62.49

SD=9.87 SD=10.07

(n=177) (n=91)

Figure 1(vi) Sex x Locale interaction profile based on the data of table (1.5)

As observing the table (1.2) the F-ratio of the interaction between sex

and locale is found to be insignificant. (F = 1.660, p>0.05). It reveals that the

difference between the means of male and female subjects of urban locale is

statistically not different from the difference between the means of male and

female subjects of rural locale. Thus, it can be concluded that sex x locale

interaction is insignificant. This insignificant F-ratio points out that sex and

locale produce insignificant differences in emotional intelligence.

Furthermore, the effect of sex on emotional intelligence does not depend on

different levels of locale, i.e. urban and rural.

Further, the second order interaction giving the combined effect of

aggression, sex and locale was also studied. The average emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects of eight sub-groups formed on the basis of

aggression, sex and locale are shown in table (1.1) and figure 1(vii)

Figure 1(vii) Aggression x Sex x Locale interaction profile based on the data

of table (1.1)

The obtained F-ratio for aggression, sex and locale interaction is 8.374

which is found significant at .05 level of confidence (p<.05). it reveals that

level of aggression, sex and locale of the subjects do appear to interact with

reference to emotional intelligence. Thus, it may be inferred that, the

difference between the means of low aggression and high aggression for male

and female subjects of urban and rural groups is statistically different from

the difference between means of low and high aggression for male and

female subjects of urban and rural groups. Therefore, aggression x sex x

locale interaction is found to be significant.

The significant interaction suggests that the emotional intelligence of

the male and female subjects of low and high aggression is dependent upon

or determined by the different locale. Thus, the effect of aggression is not the

same for male and female subjects of both urban and rural locale. It may also

be said that, the emotional intelligence of the male and female subjects is

dependent upon or determined by the different levels of aggression (i.e. high

and low) of the subjects of urban and rural locale.

Thus, the above discussion shows that among all the three factors i.e.

aggression, sex and locale, only aggression, significantly contributes to the

emotional intelligence. None of their first order interactions were found to be

significant, however the second order interaction is emerged to be significant.

Study (2) Self Concept and Emotional Intelligence

In order to examine the role of self concept in predicting emotional

intelligence by means of ANOVA statistic, self concept was the first

independent variable taken in two levels i.e. bright and poor. Sex and locale

were considered as the other two independent variables with two levels each

i.e. male and female (for sex) and, urban and rural (for locale). For dividing

the subjects into bright and poor ‘self concept’ groups the same process was

applied as mentioned earlier in the interpretation section of aggression and

emotional intelligence. In this way the subjects were divided into various sub-

groups as per the requirements of 2x2x2 ANOVA formed on the basis of self

concept, sex and locale. Then a three-way analysis of variance was computed,

which was expected to give an overall estimate of the differences in

emotional intelligence scores of the subjects due to self concept, sex and

locale. The average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects falling in

different cells of ANOVA table are presented in table (2.1).

Table (2.1) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects and S.D

for the eight subgroups formed on the basis of self concept, sex

and locale (n in each cell is given in parenthesis)

Sex Self Concept Bright Poor Locale Locale

Male Urban Rural Urban Rural Mean=67.57 Mean=70.51 Mean=59.34 Mean =59.24 S.D=9.38 S.D=9.23 S.D=9.50 S.D=8.76 (n=74) (n=74) (n=64) (n=75)

Female Mean=70.26 Mean=67.37 Mean=58.49 Mean =58.40 S.D=9.29 S.D=10.87 S.D=9.19 S.D=9.20 (n=94) (n=38) (n=93) (n=48)

The second problem undertaken in the present research was to examine

whether subjects showing bright self concept differ significantly in their

emotional intelligence in comparison of the subjects showing poor self

concept. It was hypothesized that the subjects showing bright self concept

would show high emotional intelligence as compared to the subjects showing

poor self concept.

Figure 2(i) shows average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects

having bright and poor self concept.

Figure 2(i) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of ‘bright’

and ‘poor’ self concept

Now, it is obvious by observing figure 2(i) that the average emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects of ‘bright’ and ‘poor’ self concept are

69.22 and 58.87 respectively; which indicates that subjects possessing bright

self concept show as high emotional intelligence as compared to those

possessing poor self concept. When the difference of these two groups were

tested in F-test, the obtained F-ratio was found to be significant at very high

level (F= 148.997, p<.01), (table 2.2).


table (2.1)

Source of Variation Sum of Squares

df Mean Squares

F- Ratio

Sig.

Self Concept (A) 12997.360 1 12997.360 148.997 *0.01 Sex (B) 37.143 1 37.143 0.426 Ns Locale (C) 0.165 1 0.165 0.002 Ns Self concept x Sex (AxB)

12.267 1 12.267 0.141 Ns

Self concept xLocale (AxC)

0.550 1 0.550 0.006 Ns

Sex x Locale (BxC) 272.749 1 272.749 3.127 Ns Self Concept x sex x Locale (AxBxC)

273.679 1 273.679 3.137 Ns

Within cell (SSw) 48152.207 552 87.232 Total, 63754.793 559

(* P<0.01, Ns=Not significant)

The significant F- ratio indicates that self concept has a significant

main effect on emotional intelligence and it plays a significant role in

predicting emotional intelligence of the subjects. Therefore, it confirms the

hypothesis stating that, “the subjects showing bright self concept would show

high emotional intelligence as compared to the subjects showing poor self

concept”. This result is in evidence with the findings of Dong et al. (2005),

Da Silva (2008), and Mishra and Ranjan (2008), revealing that self esteem

and self concept is positively correlated with emotional intelligence. Those

individuals who have a high self esteem and positive self concept, tend to

have higher emotional intelligence.

Self concept is related to greater interpersonal functioning,

intrapersonal awareness, accurate self assessment and self regulation (Brooks

1994; Ebersohn, 2006). ‘Self’ has an important role in the concept of

emotional intelligence as, self regulation, self motivation and self

management. Self concept of an individual determines his or her perception

about himself and connect with others. Therefore, it is a very important factor

in determining several aspects of human behavior and his interaction with

society. Moreover, it can be an agent and motivates individuals to take on

actions (Jorfi et al., 2010). Those peoples who perceives themselves

positively tend to engage in better interpersonal relationships. While poor self

concept may result into various emotional and behavioral problems.

Furthermore, having a sense of control over a situation allows for one to

experience positive emotions, which in turn influences one’s self efficacy,

self confidence and sense of autonomy. This allows the individual to

persevere through hardship while remaining optimistic (Ebersohn, 2006). Bad

self concept would give rise to inferior behavior such as pessimistic, low self

confidence and maladjustment. While, people with good self concept would

seems to be optimistic, and think and behave positively (Da Silva, 2008). The

above referred findings relates good self concept with various components of

emotional intelligence as being optimistic, better adjustment, positive self

perception, intra and interpersonal awareness. A positive self concept is

associated with certain emotional intelligence skills such as, being able to

handle defeat and disappointment, reasonably well, express feelings

appropriately, having confidence to take on challenges, setting goals and

achieving them. Todorovic (2002) have also concluded that persons without

any emotional conflict much better estimate their global self esteem, self

concept and physical attractiveness, which shows a generally better self

acceptance, compared to those having some sorts of emotional conflicts. The

above mentioned studies and their findings supports the result of the present

study that the subjects showing bright self concept possess high emotional

intelligence in comparison to those having poor self concept. Thus it is

concluded that there is a significant positive relationship between emotional

intelligence and self concept of the subjects.

The next main effect considered in the present study was to find out the

effect of sex on emotional intelligence.


subjects


male and female subjects as 64.32 and 63.76 respectively. When sex is

considered as one of the main effect disregarding self concept and locale, it

was found that the F-ratio for sex has been found to be 0.426, which is not

significant at any level. It implies that ‘sex’ does not have any significant

main effect on emotional intelligence. The figure 2(ii) showing the mean

difference of emotional intelligence between male and female subjects also

indicates that males possess higher emotional intelligence than females. The

obtained F-ratio which was found to be insignificant, denotes that the

hypothesis stating that “male subjects would show low emotional intelligence

than their counterparts” stands rejected. This finding was also supported in

the study(1). Various investigators have observed the similar results (e.g.

Chu, 2002; Hunt and Evans, 2004; Mishra and Ranjan, 2008; Tannous and

Matar, 2010). The reasons for high emotional intelligence for male subjects

as compared to females has already been discussed earlier in the study (1).

The third main effect considered in the present study was to find out

the effect of locale on emotional intelligence.

Figure 2(iii) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects belonging


Figure 2(iii) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the

subjects belonging to rural and urban locales, as 63.93 and 64.41

respectively. It indicates that the rural subjects possess low emotional

intelligence as compared to the urban subjects. But, when the difference of

these two locales was subjected to F-test by applying three-way ANOVA, the

obtained F-ratio = 0.002 is found to be insignificant. Though the average

emotional intelligence scores for urban and rural locales indicates high value

of mean for urban and low for rural, but the findings of F-test does not stands

statistically significant. Thus, due to lack of significant statistical evidence it

may be concluded that, there is not any significant locale difference exists

among emotional intelligence. Therefore, the hypothesis stating that, “the

subjects belonging to urban locale would show a high level of emotional

intelligence as compared to subjects belonging to rural locale” has been

rejected. This finding was also supported by Gowdhaman and Murugan

(2009) as described in the study (1) and the reasons and interpretation of the

results have already been made there.

Moving ahead to the interpretation of the interaction effects of all three

independent variables i.e. self concept, sex and locale on emotional

intelligence, out of the three first order interactions, one is the interaction

between self concept and sex. Table (2.3) and figure 2(iv) shows the average

emotional intelligence scores of four sub-groups formed on the basis of self

concept and sex.

Table (2.3) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects and SD of

four sub-groups formed on the basis of self concept and sex (n in


Sex Self Concept

Bright Poor

Male Mean=69.04 Mean= 59.29

S.D=9.39 S.D=9.07

(n=148) (n=139)

Female Mean=69.42 Mean= 58.46

S.D=9.82 S.D=9.16

(n=132) (n=141)

Figure 2(iv) Self concept x Sex interaction profile based on the data of table

(2.3)

As shown in table 2.2 (summary of ANOVA), that the interaction

between self concept and sex is found to be insignificant (F= 0.141, p>.05). It

further reveals that the difference between the means of bright self concept

and poor self concept for male subjects is statistically not different from in

comparison of the difference between the means of bright self concept and

poor self concept for female subjects. Thus, it can be concluded that, self

concept x sex interaction is insignificant. This insignificant interaction

reveals that the emotional intelligence scores of the male and female subjects

are not dependent on difference in bright and poor self concept. It may also

be interpreted as, the emotional intelligence scores of the subjects having

bright and poor self concept are not dependent on different sexes. In other

words, the insignificant F-ratio proved that both the factors i.e. self concept

and sex are independent in exerting their influences on emotional

intelligence.

Another interaction is between self concept and locale. The following

table, (table 2.4) and figure 2(v) shows the average emotional intelligence

scores of the subjects of four sub-groups on the basis of self concept and

locale.


four sub-groups on the basis of self concept and locale (n in each


Locale Self Concept Bright Poor

Urban Mean=69.07 Mean= 58.84

S.D=9.40 S.D=9.30

(n=168) (n=157)

Rural Mean=69.45 Mean= 58.91

S.D=9.88 S.D=8.91

(n=112) (n=123)

Figure 2(v) Self concept x Locale interaction profile based on the data of

table (2.4)

As shown in table (2.2) the F-ratio of the interaction between self

concept and locale is found to be insignificant (F= .006, p>.05). It indicates

that the difference between the means of bright self concept and poor self

concept of urban group of subjects is not statistically different from the

difference between the means of bright self concept and poor self concept for

rural group of subjects. Thus, it can be concluded that self concept x locale

interaction is insignificant. This insignificant interaction reveals that the

emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of bright and poor self concept

sub-groups are nearly the same as for rural and urban locale. It may also be

referred that effect of bright and poor self concept on emotional intelligence

does not depend on the difference in rural and urban locale; or the effect of

rural and urban locale on emotional intelligence does not depend on

difference in bright and poor self concept.


emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of four sub-groups formed on

the basis of sex and locale is shown in the table (2.5) and figure 2(vi).




Sex Locale Urban Rural

Male Mean=63.75 Mean=64.84

S.D=10.26 S.D=10.60

(n=138) (n=149)

Female Mean=64.41 Mean=62.36

S.D=10.94 S.D=10.88

(n=187) (n=86)

Figure 2(vi ) Sex x Locale interaction profile based on the data of table (2.5)


and locale is found to be insignificant (F =3.127, p>.05). It reveals that the

difference between the means of male subjects and female subjects of urban

locale is statistically not different from the difference between the means of

male and female subjects of rural locale. Thus, it can be concluded that sex x

locale interaction is insignificant. This insignificant F-ratio points out that sex

and locale produce insignificant differences in emotional intelligence.

Furthermore, the effect of sex on emotional intelligence does not depend on

different levels of locale, i.e. urban and rural.

Finally, the second order interaction was also studied which gives the

combined effect of self concept, sex and locale. The average emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects of eight sub-groups formed on the basis of

self concept, sex and locale are shown in table (2.1) and figure 2(vii).

Figure 2(vii) Self concept x Sex x Locale interaction profile based on the data

of table (2.1)

The obtained F-ratio for self concept, sex and locale interaction is

3.137 which is found to be insignificant. It reveals that self concept, sex and

locale of the subjects did not appear to interact with reference to emotional

intelligence. From the insignificant interaction it may be concluded that

difference in emotional intelligence exhibited by bright and poor self concept

sub-groups does not vary considerably because of the difference in sex and

locale. Self concept x sex interaction is same for the rural and urban locale

subjects; or self concept x locale interaction does not differ for the male and

female subjects; or sex x locale interaction is same for the subjects of bright

and poor self concept sub-groups.

Thus, the above discussion shows that among all the three factors, i.e.

self concept, sex and locale, only self concept contributes significantly to the

emotional intelligence. However, none of their first order and second order

interactions were found to be significant. Therefore, it is concluded that self

concept have a significant positive relationship with emotional intelligence.

Study (3) Extraversion and Emotional Intelligence

The next variable to be measured with reference to emotional

intelligence, in the present study is one of the personality dimensions, i.e.

extraversion. In order to examine the role of ‘extraversion’ personality

dimension in predicting emotional intelligence, by using three-way ANOVA

statistic, extraversion was considered as the first independent variable taken

into two levels i.e. high and low. The subjects scoring low on extraversion

were considered as introverts. The next independent variable is sex, also

taken at two levels (categories) i.e. male and female, and the third

independent variable is locale, which is considered also with two levels

(groups) i.e. urban and rural.

The process of dividing the subjects into high and low ‘extraversion’

groups, was the same, as applied for dividing the subjects into high and low

‘aggression’ groups as mentioned previously, in detail. Then a three-way

analysis of variance was computed which was expected to give an overall

estimate of the differences in emotional intelligence scores of the subjects

due to extraversion, sex and locale. The average emotional intelligence scores

of the subjects falling in different cells of ANOVA table are presented in

table (3.1).

Table (3.1) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects and S.D for

the eight sub-groups formed on the basis of extraversion, sex and


Sex Extraversion

Low High

Locale Locale


Male Mean = 64.84 Mean =66.51 Mean =60.33 Mean=61.22

S.D=9.58 S.D=10.65 S.D=9.63 S.D=7.45

(n=73) (n=84) (n=51) (n=89)

Female Mean = 64.32 Mean =61.53 Mean =62.40 Mean=61.46

S.D=10.52 S.D=10.74 S.D=10.18 S.D=10.19

(n=87) (n=36) (n=86) (n=54)

The third problem undertaken in the present study was to examine

whether subjects belonging to extraversion personality dimension differ

significantly in their emotional intelligence than their counterparts. It was

hypothesized that the subjects belonging to extraversion personality

dimension would show high level of emotional intelligence as compared to

their counterparts.

Figure 3(i) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects scoring low

and high on extraversion

It was observed from the above figure 3(i) that the average emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects scoring low and high on extraversion are

64.75 and 61.47 respectively. Further when difference of these two groups

(i.e. high and low extraversion) were tested in F-test the obtained F-ratio was

found to be 11.396 which is significant at .01 level of confidence (table 3.2).

Table (3.2) Summary of the three-way analysis of variance for the data of table (3.1)


df Mean square

F- ratio

Sig.

Extraversion (A) 1102.657 1 1102.657 11.396 *0.01 Sex (B) 81.237 1 81.237 0.840 Ns Locale (C) 10.668 1 10.668 0.110 Ns Extraversion x Sex (AxB)

483.145 1 483.145 4.993 Ns

Extraversion x Locale (AxC)

9.212 1 9.212 0.095 Ns

Sex x Locale (BxC) 314.748 1 314.748 3.253 Ns Extraversion x sex x Locale (AxBxC)

55.650 1 55.650 0.573 Ns

Within cell (SSw) 53411.799 552 96.761 Total 55719.136 559

(* P<0.01, Ns=Not significant)

The significant F-ratio indicates that extraversion personality

dimension has a significant main effect on emotional intelligence of the

subjects. It indicates that both the groups (high and low extraversion) differed

significantly. But a glance at the mean scores indicates that subjects scoring

low on extraversion, possess high emotional intelligence as compared to

those who were scored high on extraversion dimension of personality.

However, it was expected that those who have scored high on extraversion

would also possess high emotional intelligence. Thus, it can be interpreted

that subjects high on extraversion scores are low on their emotional

intelligence. It further implies that subjects scoring low on extraversion (i.e.

those who are introverts) are possessing high emotional intelligence as

compared to their counterparts.

Therefore, the above finding leads to the conclusion that there exists a

significant negative relationship between emotional intelligence and

extraversion dimension of personality, which means that the level of

emotional intelligence decreases with an increase in extraversion scores of

the subjects. Hence, the hypothesis stating that “the subjects belonging to

extraversion personality dimension would show high level of emotional

intelligence as compared to their counterparts” has been rejected in this study.

The findings of the present study is in evidence with the results obtained by

Palmer, Gardner and Stough (2003) who have found small correlations

between extraversion personality dimension and emotional intelligence.

Furthermore, the findings of Kumar and Bhushan (2006), have also supported

the results of the results of the present study by concluding that, extraversion

personality (referred as ‘sociability’) had a negative correlation with ‘social

skills’ dimension of emotional intelligence.

Extraversion is often characterized as being energetic, outgoing, to

seek out stimulation and the company of others. The extraverts tend to be

gregarious, assertive and interested in obtaining gratification from what is

outside the ‘self’. while, introverts tend to be more reserved and less outgoing

in comparison to the former. Being reserved and less sociable does not meant

that they are loners, but they tend to be satisfy with fewer social relationships.

Introversion does not describe social discomfort. Extraversion and

introversion are viewed as a single continuum, thus to be high on one is

necessarily to be low on the other. As the finding of the present study reveals

that subjects scoring low on extraversion (i.e. introverts) are possessing high

emotional intelligence as compared to those who have scored high on

extraversion personality dimension. One of the reasons behind this type of

finding may be that, though typical extraverts possess qualities of being

optimistic, and having positive emotions, they are also often characterized as

impulsive individuals, tends to be aggressive, and loosing temper quickly.

Eysenck (1967) have revealed that extraverts don’t learn from punishments.

They show a pattern of poorly socialized and impulsive behavior.

Furthermore, extraverts who are highly emotional respond to their emotions

impulsively and at its extreme, the extravert’s impulsive actions are not

restrained at all, as his feelings are not under right control, resulting in a

pattern of behavior that is variously been labeled psychopathy, antisocial

personality, and sociopathy. All the above mentioned behavioral aspects

opposes the emotionally intelligent behavioral skills. Nevertheless,

extraversion is perceived as socially desirable, but it is not always an

advantage. Studies show that, extraverted youth are more likely to engage in

delinquent behavior (Ryckman, 2004). While, introversion constitutes

controlled and responsible behavior, and conversally, it is perceived as less

socially desirable but it is strongly associated with positive traits such as

intelligence (Furnham, Forde and Cotter, 1998) and “giftedness” (Gallagher,

1990; Hoehn, and Birely, 1988) and also, researchers have found that

introverts tend to be more successful in academic environments, where

extroverts may find boring (Eysenck, 1971). Studies revealed that an introvert

distrusts the impulse of the moment, likes a well ordered mode of life, seldom

behaves in an aggressive manner and does not lose his temper easily

(Eysenck, 1967). The aforesaid behavioral patterns are essential for having a

good emotional intelligence. Therefore, on the basis of the results obtained by

the present study, it may be concluded that, there exists a significant negative

relationship between emotional intelligence and extraversion personality

dimension, as the subjects scoring low on extraversion are possessing high

emotional intelligence.


effect of sex in predicting emotional intelligence.


subjects



considered as one of the main effect disregarding extraversion and locale, it

was found that the F-ratio for sex has been found to be 0.840, which is not




indicates that males possess higher emotional intelligence than females. The

obtained F-ratio which was found to be insignificant, denotes that the

hypothesis stating that “male subjects would show low emotional intelligence

than their counterparts” has been rejected in the present study. This finding

was also supported in study (1). Various investigators have observed the

similar results (e.g. Chu, 2002; Hunt and Evans, 2004; Mishra and Ranjan,

2008; Tannous and Matar, 2010). The reasons for high emotional intelligence

for male subjects as compared to females has already been discussed earlier

in study (1). The third main effect considered in the present study was to find

out the effect of locale on emotional intelligence.



Figure 3(iii) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the

subjects belonging to rural and urban locales, as 63.00 and 63.21

respectively. It implies that the rural subjects possess low emotional

intelligence as compared to their urban counterparts. However, this difference

does not show much variation. But, when the difference of these two locales

was subjected to F-test by applying three-way ANOVA, the obtained F-ratio

= 0.110 is found to be insignificant. It implies that there is not any significant

main effect of locale on the emotional intelligence of the subjects.

Therefore, due to lack of significant statistical evidence the research

hypothesis stating that, “the subjects belonging to urban locale would show a

high level of emotional intelligence as compared to their rural counterparts”

has been rejected. This finding was also supported in study (1) and the

reasons and interpretation of the results have already been made there.

Next is the interpretation of the interaction effects of all the three

independent variables i.e. extraversion, sex and locale on emotional

intelligence. Out of the three ‘first order interactions’, one is the interaction

between extraversion and sex. Table (3.3) and figure 3(iv) shows the average

emotional intelligence scores of four sub-groups formed on the basis of

extraversion and sex.


four sub-groups formed on the basis of extraversion and sex (n

in each cell is given in parenthesis)

Sex Extraversion

Low High Male Mean=65.73 Mean=60.90

S.D=10.17 S.D=8.29 (n=157) (n=140)


S.D=10.62 S.D=10.16 (n=123) (n=140)

Figure 3(iv) Extraversion x Sex interaction profile based on the data of table

(3.3)

Table (3.2) (summary of ANOVA) depicts that the interaction between

extraversion and sex is found to be insignificant (F= 4.993, p>.05). It implies

that the difference between the means of high extraversion scores and low

extraversion scores for male subjects is statistically not different from the

difference between the means of high extraversion scores and low

extraversion scores for female subjects. Thus, it can be concluded that

extraversion x sex interaction is insignificant. This insignificant interaction


are not dependent on difference in low and high extraversion. It may also be

interpreted as, the emotional intelligence scores of the low and high

extraversion subjects are not dependent on different sexes. In other words, the

insignificant F-ratio proved that both the factors i.e. extraversion and sex are

independent in exerting their influences on emotional intelligence. Another

interaction is between extraversion and locale, disregarding sex. The

following table (3.4) and figure 3(iv) shows the average emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects of four subgroups on the basis of

extraversion and locale. Table (3.4) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects and S.D of

four subgroups on the basis of extraversion and locale (n in each


Locale Extraversion Low High


S.D=10.07 S.D=9.99

(n=160) (n=137)


S.D=10.88 S.D=8.55

(n=120) (n=143)

Figure 3(v) Extraversion x Locale interaction profile based on the data of

table (3.4)

As it has been clear from the table (3.2) that the F-ratio of the

interaction between extraversion and locale is found to be insignificant (F=

0.095, p>.05). It indicates that the difference between the means of high

extraversion scores and low extraversion scores of urban group of subjects is

not statistically different from the difference between means of high

extraversion scores and low extraversion scores for rural group of subjects.

Thus, it can be concluded that extraversion x locale interaction is


intelligence scores of the subjects of low and high extraversion sub-groups

are nearly the same as for rural and urban locale. It may also be stated that

effect of low and high extraversion on emotional intelligence does not depend

on the difference in rural and urban locale; or the effect of rural and urban

locale on emotional intelligence does not depend on difference in low and

high extraversion.

The next first order interaction is between sex and locale, disregarding

extraversion. The average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of

four sub-groups formed on the basis of sex and locale is shown in the table

(3.5) and figure 3(vi).




Sex Locale Urban Rural


S.D=9.82 S.D=9.50 (n=124) (n=173)


S.D=10.18 S.D=10.35 (n=86) (n=90)

Figure 3(vi) Sex x Locale interaction profile based on the data of table (3.5)


and locale is found to be insignificant (F= 3.253, p>.05). It reveals that the



male and female subjects of rural locale. Therefore, it can be concluded that

sex x locale interaction is insignificant. This insignificant F-ratio point out

that sex and locale produce insignificant differences in emotional

intelligence. The effect of sex on emotional intelligence does not depend on

different levels of locale (i.e. urban and rural).

Next, is the second order interaction effect, which was studied for

knowing the combined effect of extraversion, sex and locale on emotional

intelligence. The average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of

eight sub-groups formed on the basis of extraversion, sex and locale are

shown in table (3.1) and figure 3(vii).

Figure 3(vii) Extraversion x Sex x Locale interaction profile based on the

data of table (3.1)

The obtained F-ratio for extraversion, sex and locale interaction is

0.573 which is not significant at any level of confidence. It implies that

extraversion, sex and locale of the subjects did not appear to interact with

reference to emotional intelligence. From the insignificant interaction it may

be concluded that difference in emotional intelligence exhibited by high and

low extraversion sub-groups does not vary considerably because of the

difference in sex and locale. Extraversion x sex x locale interaction is same

for the subjects of rural and urban locale; or extraversion x locale interaction

does not differ for the male and female subjects; or sex x locale is same for

the subjects of high and low extraversion sub-groups. Thus, the above

discussion shows that, among all the three factors i.e. extraversion, sex and

locale, only extraversion personality dimension contributes significantly to

the emotional intelligence. However, none of their first order and second

order interactions were found to be significant.

Study (4) Neuroticism and Emotional intelligence Neuroticism is the another important personality dimension that was

considered as the next independent variable to be measured in the present

research work. In order to examine the role of ‘neuroticism’ personality

dimension in predicting emotional intelligence by using 2x2x2 ANOVA,

neuroticism was considered as the first independent variable, taken into two

levels i.e. high and low. The subjects scoring low on ‘neuroticism’ were

considered as ‘emotionally stable’. The next independent variable is sex,

which was also taken at two levels (categories) i.e. male and female, and the

third independent variable is locale which is also considered with two levels

(groups) i.e. urban and rural.

The process of dividing the subjects into high and low ‘neuroticism’

groups, was the same, as applied for dividing the subjects into high’ and low’

‘aggression’ groups as mentioned previously in detail. Then a three-way

analysis of variance was computed which was expected to give an overall

estimate of the differences in emotional intelligence scores of the subject due

to neuroticism, sex and locale. The average emotional intelligence scores of

the subjects falling in different cells of ANOVA table are presented in Table

(4.1.)

Table (4.1) Average emotional Intelligence scores of the subjects and S.D

for the eight subgroups formed on the basis of neuroticism, sex

and locale (n in each cell is given in parenthesis)

The fourth problem undertaken in the present research was to examine

whether subjects belonging to neuroticism personality dimension differ

significantly in their emotional intelligence than their counterparts. It was

hypothesized that subjects belonging to neuroticism personality dimension

would score low on emotional intelligence as compared to their counterparts.

Figure 4(i) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects

having high and low neuroticism scores.

Neuroticism

Low High

Locale Locale

Sex Urban Rural Urban Rural

Male Mean=68.56

S.D=8.52

(n=64)

Mean=68.68

S.D=10.66

(n=97)

Mean=58.72

S.D=9.73

(n=58)

Mean=59.26

S.D=7.62

(n=68)

Female Mean=69.21

S.D=9.46

(n=75)

Mean=66.59

S.D=10.37

(n=44)

Mean=59.85

S.D=9.25

(n=119)

Mean=57.80

S.D=9.84

(n=35)

Figure 4(i) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects having high

and low neuroticism scores

It was observed from the above figure 4(i) that the average emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects scoring low and high on neuroticism are

68.47 and 59.22 respectively. It indicates that those subjects who have scored

low on neuroticism possess high emotional intelligence as compared to those

who were scored high on neuroticism dimension of personality.

When difference of these two groups were tested in F-test, the obtained

F-ratio was found to be significant at very high level. (F=119.416, P<0.01)

(See table 4.2).

Table 4.2 Summary of the three-way analysis of variance for the data of table

(4.1) Source of Variation Sum of

squares. df Mean

square F ratio Sig.

Neuroticism (A) 10689.801 1 10689.801 119.416 *0.01 Sex (B) 24.168 1 24.168 0.270 Ns Locale (C) 122.991 1 122.991 1.374 Ns Neuroticism x Sex (AXB)

9.218 1 9.218 0.103 Ns

Neuroticism x Locale (AxC)

7.583 1 7.583 0.085 Ns

Sex x locale (BxC) 216.970 1 216.970 2.424 Ns Neuroticism x Sex x Locale (AxBxC)

0.174 1 0.174 0.002 Ns

Within cell (SSw) 49413.765 552 89.518 Total 61726.171 559

(P<0.01, Ns = Not significant )

The Significant F ratio indicates that neuroticism personality

dimension has a significant main effect on emotional intelligence of the

subjects. The significant F- ratio therefore, confirms the hypothesis stating

that “subjects belonging to neuroticism personality dimension would score

low on emotional intelligence as compared to their counterparts”.

This finding is in consonance with the results obtained from the studies

of Saklofske, Austin and Minski (2003), Austin, Dore and O’ Donovan,

(2008), Austin et al., (2007) and Van Rooy et al., (2005) who have found a

negative relationship of EI with neuroticism, which means that increase in

emotional intelligence leads to decreasing neuroticism. Similarly, Kokkonen

and Pulkkinen (2001), have reported that neuroticism leads to higher

emotional ambivalence or disregualtion. Furthermore, Saklofske, Austin and

Andrews (2007) and Lopes, Salovey and Straus (2003) have also concluded

that emotional intelligence is negatively associated with neuroticism

personality dimensions. Studies done by Matthews, Emo, Funke and Zeidner

(2006), also confirmed that neuroticism is related to distress, worry and

emotion-focused coping to stress responses.

Neuroticism personality dimension is mostly related to emotional

instability, nervousness and mood imbalance. While, emotional intelligence

is the ability to manage emotions, handling them carefully and in a balance

way by managing stress and emotional instability. Therefore, it is obvious

that those individual, who are better in their emotion management ability,

handling situations and working well on stress management areas are

comparatively less neurotic than others who are not so much skilled on

emotional management. The above justification supports the finding of the

present study that persons who are better in their emotional intelligence have

scored low on their neuroticism dimension of personality and are emotionally

stable as compared to their counterparts. The finding of the present study

indicates that there is a significant negative relationship between neuroticism

and emotional intelligence. Consistent with McCrae (2000) and Matthews et

al., (2006) the present study found a strong relationship between neuroticism

personality dimension and emotional intelligence. Since emotional

intelligence is an ability, rather than a disposition, it influences the

personality development of an individual. The findings are also supported by

the results obtained from the study of Athota, O’ Connor and Jackson (2009),

reporting that emotional intelligence is a significant predictor of neuroticism

personality dimension. Individuals who scores high on neuroticism, seeks

problems in emotional regulation, decision making and cope effectively with

stress. It is related to distress and negative affect. Those persons who have

scored high in neuroticism are found to be emotionally reactive and

vulnerable to stress. Neuroticism is associated with low EI. The components

of emotional intelligence which involves emotion regulation, motivation and

interpersonal skills are appearing to have a negative relationship with

neuroticism. The above mentioned studies and their findings, thus, supports

the results of the present study that the subjects scoring low on neuroticism

possess high emotional intelligence in comparison to their counterparts.

Therefore, it is concluded that there is a significant negative relationship

between emotional intelligence and neuroticism personality dimension of the

subjects.



Figure 4(ii) Average emotional intelligence scores of male and female

subjects


male and female subject as 64.41and 63.25 respectively. When sex is

considered as one of the main effect disregarding neuroticism and locale, it

was found that the F-ratio for sex has found to be 0.270, which is not




indicates that males possess higher emotional intelligence in comparison to

females. The obtained F- ratio which was found to be insignificant, denotes

that the hypothesis stating “male subjects would show low emotional

intelligence than their female counterparts” has been rejected in the present

study. This finding was also supported in the study (1). The similar result was

observed by various investigators (e.g.Chu 2002; Hunt and Evans, 2004;

Mishra and Ranjan, 2008; Tannous and Matar, 2010). The reasons for high

emotional intelligence for male subjects as compared to females has already

been discussed earlier in study (1).

The third main effect considered in the present study was to find out


Figure 4(iii) Average emotional intelligence scores of subjects belonging to

urban and rural locale

Figure 4(iii) presents the average emotional intelligence scores of the

subjects belonging to rural and urban locales as 64.12 and 63.63 respectively.

When locale is considered as one of the main effect, disregarding neuroticism

and sex it was found that the F-ratio for locale has been found to be 1.374

which is not significant at any level. The figure 4(iii) showing the mean

difference of emotional intelligence between urban and rural locale also

indicates that subjects belonging to rural locale are possessing high emotional

intelligence in comparison of their urban counterparts.

Therefore, the insignificant F- ratio indicates that there is not any

significant main effect of locale exists on the emotional intelligence of the

subjects. Thus, it may be concluded that the research hypothesis stating that

“subjects belonging to urban locale would show a higher level of emotional

intelligence as compared to the subjects belonging to rural locale” has been

rejected. This finding was also supported by the results obtained from the

study of Shanwal (2004) that the rural childrens have high emotional

intelligence as compared to the urban ones.

Next is the interpretation of the interaction effects of all the three

independent variables i.e. neuroticism, sex and locale on emotional

intelligence. Out of the three first order interactions, one is the interaction

between neuroticism and the sex. Table (4.3) and figure 4(iv) shows the

average emotional intelligence scores of four subgroups formed on the basis

of neuroticism and sex.

Table (4.3) Average Emotional Intelligence Scores of the subjects and S.D of

four sub-groups formed on the basis of neuroticism and sex (n in


Sex Neuroticism

Low High


SD=9.84 SD=8.62

(n=161) (n=126)


SD=9.85 SD=9.39

(n=119) (n=154)

Figure 4(iv) Neuroticism x Sex interaction profile based on the data of table

(4.3).

Table 4.2. (Summary of ANOVA) depicts that the interaction between

neuroticism and sex is found to be significant (F=0.103, P>0.05). It implies

that the difference between the means of high neuroticism scores and low

neuroticism scores for male subjects is statistically not different from the

difference between the mean of high neuroticism scores and low neuroticism

scores for female subjects.

This insignificant interaction reveals that the emotional intelligence

scores of the male and female subjects are not dependent on difference in low

and high neuroticism. It may also be interpreted as, the emotional intelligence

scores of the subject having low and high neuroticism are not dependent on

different sex. In other words, the insignificant F- ratio proved that both the

factors i.e neuroticism and sex are independent in exerting their influences in

emotional intelligence.

Thus, it can be concluded that neuroticism x sex interaction is found to

be insignificant.

Another interaction is between neuroticism and locale. The following

table (4.4.) and figure 4(v) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of

the subjects of four sub groups on the basis of neuroticism and locale. Table (4.4) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects and S.D of

four sub groups on the basis of neuroticism and locale (n in each


Neuroticism

Locale Low High


SD=9.02 SD=9.40

(n=139) (n=177


SD=10.58 SD=8.42

(n=141 (n=103

Figure 4(v) Neuroticism x Locale interaction profile based on the data of

table (4.4).

As, it has been clear from the table 4.2 (Summary of ANOVA) that

the interaction between neuroticism and locale is found to be insignificant

(F=0.085, P>0.05). It indicates that the difference between the means of high

neuroticism scores and low neuroticism scores of urban group of subjects is

not statistically different from the difference between the means of high

neuroticism scores and low neuroticism scores for rural group of subjects.

Thus, it can be concluded that neuroticism x locale interaction is


intelligence scores of the subjects of low and high neuroticism are nearly the

same as for rural and urban locale. It may also be stated that effect of low and

high neuroticism on emotional intelligence does not depend on the difference

in rural and urban locale; or the effect of rural and urban locale on emotional

intelligence does not depend on difference in low and high neuroticism.

The next ‘first order interaction’ is between sex and locale,

disregarding neuroticism. The average emotional intelligence scores of the

subjects of four subgroups formed on the basis of sex and locale is presented

in the following table (4.5) and figure 4(vi).


four sub groups formed on the basis of sex and locale (n in each

cell is given in parenthesis )

Sex Locale

Urban Rural


SD=10.33 SD=10.58

(n=122) (n=165)


SD=10.37 SD=10.99

(n=194) (n=79)

Figure 4(vi) Sex x Locale interaction profile based on the data of table (4.5).

As observing the table (4.2) the F- ratio of the interaction between sex

and locale is found to be insignificant (F=2.424, P>0.05). It reveals that the



male and Female Subjects of rural locale. Therefore, it can be concluded that

sex x locale interaction is insignificant. This insignificant F-ratio points out


intelligence. Furthermore, the effect of sex on emotional intelligence does not

depend on different levels of locale i.e. rural and urban.

Next, is the second order interaction effect which was studied for

knowing the combined effect of neuroticism, sex and locale on emotional

intelligence. The average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of

eight subgroups formed on the basis of neuroticism, sex and locale are shown

in table (4.1) and figure 4(vii)

Figure 4(vii) Neuroticism x Sex x Locale interaction profile basis on the data

of table (4.1)

The obtained F-ratio for neuroticism, sex and locale interaction is

0.002 which is not significant at any level of confidence. It implies that

neuroticism, sex and locale of the subjects did not appear to interact with

reference to emotional intelligence. From the insignificant interaction it may

be concluded that difference in emotional Intelligence exhibited by high and

low neuroticism sub-groups does not vary considerably because of the

difference in sex and locale. Neuroticism x sex interaction is same for the

subjects of rural and urban locale; or neuroticism x locale interaction does not

differ for the male and female subjects; or sex x locale interaction is same for

the subjects of high and low neuroticism sub groups. Thus, the above

discussion shows that, among all the three factors i.e. neuroticism, sex and

locale, only neuroticism personality dimension contributes significantly to the

emotional intelligence. However, none of their first order and second order

interactions were found to be significant.

Study (5) Home Environment and Emotional Intelligence With an attempt to examine the role of home environment in predicting

emotional intelligence ANOVA statistic was used. For this purpose home

environment was considered as the first independent variable, taken in two

levels i.e. favourable and unfavourable.

Subjects having low scores on home environment inventory were

denoted to have unfavourable home environment, while subjects scoring high

on home environment inventory were denoted to have a favourable home

environment. Sex and locale were considered as the other two independent

variables with two levels each i.e. male and female (for sex) and urban and

rural (for locale). For dividing the subjects into favourable and unfavourable

home, environment groups, the same process was applied as mentioned

earlier in the interpretation section of aggression and emotional intelligence.

In this way, the subjects were divided into various sub groups as per

the requirements of 2x2x2 ANOVA formed on the basis of home

environment, sex and locale. The average emotional intelligence scores of the

subjects falling in difference cells of ANOVA table are presented in table 5.1.

Table (5.1) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects and S.D for

the eight subgroups formed on the basis of home environment, sex

and locale (n in each cell is given in parenthesis )

Sex Home environment

Favourable (High) Unfavourable (low)

Locale Locale

Rural Urban Rural Urban

Male Mean=65.81 Mean=62.76 Mean=64.14 Mean=64.65

SD=10.07 SD=10.47 SD=10.93 SD=10.63

(n=86) (n=63) (n=72) (n=63)

Female Mean=61.78 Mean=65.64 Mean=62.00 Mean=62.76

SD=8.45 SD=9.98 SD=11.42 SD=10.84

(n=46) (n=85) (n=45) (n=100)

The fifth problem undertaken in the present study was to examine whether

subject possessing a favourable home environment differ significantly in their

emotional intelligence in comparison of the subjects possessing unfavourable

home environment. It was hypothesized that the subjects possessing a

favourable home environment would show a high level of emotional

intelligence as compared to the subjects possessing unfavourable home

environment.

Figure 5(i) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects

possessing favourable and unfavorable home environment.

Figure 5(i) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects having

favourable and unfavourable home environment

Now, it is obvious by observing figure 5(i) that the average emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects having favourable and unfavourable home

environment are 64.41 and 63.42 respectively; which indicates that subjects

possessing favourable home environment show a high emotional intelligence

as compared to those possessing unfavourble home-environment. When the

difference of these two groups were tested in F-test, the obtained F- ratio =

0.448 (P>0.05) was found to be insignificant (table 5.2).

Table(5.2) Summary of three-way analysis of variance for the data of table

(5.1) Source of Variation Sum of

squares df Mean

squares F-ratio

Sig

Home environment (A) 48.570 1 48.570 0.448 Ns Sex (B) 218.813 1 218.813 2.018 Ns Locale (C) 34.925 1 34.925 0.322 Ns Home environment x Sex (AxB)

67.053 1 67.053 0.618 Ns

Home environment x Locale (AxC)

1.806 1 1.806 0.017 Ns

Sex x Locale (BxC) 415.997 1 415.997 3.836 Ns Home environment x Sex x Locale (AxBxC)

360.283 1 360.283 3.323 Ns

Within Cell (SSw) 59857.141 552 108.437 Total 61047.886 559

(Ns= Not significant)

This insignificant F- ratio indicates that home environment does not

have a significant main effect on emotional intelligence. It further implies

that home environment did not play any significant role in predicting

emotional intelligence. However, it was expected that the subjects possessing

favourable home environment, have high emotional intelligence as compared

to their counterparts. The mean difference (figure 5.1) also indicates the same

thing, but due to lack of statistically significant evidence it can be concluded

that the hypothesis stating that “the subjects possessing a favourable home

environment would show a high level of emotional intelligence as compared

to the subjects possessing unfavourable home environment” has been

rejected.

However, several studies that have been made regarding the impact of

home environment on emotional intelligence found a positive relationship

between these two factors, for e.g. Tiwari and Srivastava (2004) have

concluded that the type and quality of home environment was found related

to the development of emotional intelligence. Further, Uma Devi, and Rayal

(2004) concluded that adolescent’s perception about family environment is

positively and significantly related to total emotional intelligence and also to

the interpersonal and stress management components of emotional

intelligence. Adolescents who perceived that their families were cohesive,

show acceptance and caring, are organized and mange stress effectively. In

this connection, study done by Varshney (2007) also implies that higher

parental encouragement is associated with good emotional intelligence.

Similarly, Duhan and Chhikara (2007) inferred that more suitable the

parenting style, better will be the emotional intelligence skills. Results

revealed by the study of Sethi and Ajawani (2008) have also found a

significant positive relationships between emotional intelligence and parent-

child relationship. Conducive home environment with secure feeling give rise

to emotionally intelligent individuals (Mohanty and Devi L., 2010) Now, as

we consider the present study, the average emotional intelligence scores of

the subjects having favourable home environment is found to be higher

(64.41) than that of those having unfavourable home environment (63.42).

This higher mean score of EI show that affectionate, caring, liberal and

considerate home environment leads to increase in emotional intelligence of

the subjects. This finding is in consonance with the above cited studies. But it

is a matter of fact that this finding is statistically insignificant. That means the

difference between the means of the two groups is statistically not significant.

Therefore, it can be concluded for the present study that, there is found an

insignificant relationship between home environment of the individuals and

their emotional intelligence.

To justify this finding, it may be stated that the individuals who are

lacking a favourable home environment, mostly face problems in emotion

regulation and emotional management. Authoritative parenting style,

punishments and parental discouragement exerts an adverse effect on the

children on an emotional ground which results in lack of confidence,

pessimistic nature, development of inferiority complex and many other

behavioral problems. Besides this, a favourable home environment is

necessary for the overall personality development of an individual, including

the development of various emotional processes. Young adults face a number

of challenges at home. In order to be independent emotionally and to have

feeling of understanding, affection, and respect at the same time is a great

challenge for them. As studies revealed that a healthy emotional climate

makes a child relaxed, cooperative, happy, motivated to study, and

disciplined behavior. An unhealthy emotional climate makes the child tense,

nervous, irritate, disinterested in studies, and prone to troublesome behavior

(Hurlock, 1942). Due to poor home conditions, conflicting parental

relationships and unfavorable parental attitudes, children are not able to fulfill

their basic needs and desires, and they become tensed, frustrated and

emotionally unstable. Children’s emotionality and regulation of emotion were

related to the quality of parent child relationships; but the development of

emotional intelligence skills is very much dependent upon various other

factors apart from the home environment, that can influence an individual on

several behavioural and emotional level. The home environment definitely

exerts a significant impact on the individual’s over all well being regarding

several psychological aspects like, learning process, affiliation and security

needs, relationship management and emotional development. A favourable

home environment can provides an individual, the basics of emotional

intelligence by giving emotional stability to them but the emotional

intelligence skills flourishes mostly outside the home with other peoples apart

from family members, as with peer groups and further on work place; where

an individual gets an opportunity to face the outer world apart from his

conducive home environment. He confronts challenging situations to regulate

his emotions and manage them appropriately in an intelligent way. So it can

be said that a favourable home environment can nourish the emotional

intelligence of a person, but its further development depends much upon the

social situations that a person faces outside home. In other words it can be

said that the emotional intelligence skills born under a favourable home

environment but further develops in more complex social situations and

circumstances.



Figure 5(ii) Average emotional intelligence scores of male and female

subjects.

Figure 5(ii) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the male and

female subjects as 64.45 and 63.36 respectively. When sex is considered as

one of the main effect disregarding home environment and locale, again it

was found that the F-ratio for sex has been found to be insignificant (F=

2.018, P> 0.05). The figure 5(ii) showing the mean difference of emotional

intelligence between male and female subjects also indicates that males

possess higher emotional intelligence than females. The obtained F-ratio

which was found to be insignificant, denotes that the hypothesis stating that

“male subjects would show a low level of emotional intelligence than the

female subjects” stands rejected. This finding was also supported in study (1).

Various investigators have observed the similar results (eg. Chu, 2002; Hunt

and Evans; Mishra and Ranjan, 2008; Tannous and Matar, 2010). The reasons

for high EI for male subjects as compared to females has already been

discussed earlier in study (1). The third main effect considered in the present

study was to find out the effect of locale on emotional intelligence.

Figure 5(iii) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects bekonging

to urban and rural locale.

Figure 5(iii) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects

belonging to rural and urban locale as 63.90 and 63.93 respectively. It

indicates that the rural subjects possess low emotional intelligence as

compared to the urban subjects. However, the difference between means of

these two groups does not show much variation. Further, the difference of

these two locales was subjected to F-test, by applying three way ANOVA, the

obtained F-ratio is found to be insignificant (F=0.322, P>0.05). Therefore, it

can be stated that though the average emotional intelligence scores for urban

and rural locales indicates high value of mean for urban and low for rural,

there is found a lack of statistically significant evidence to prove this finding.

Thus, it may be concluded that there is not found any significant locale

difference existing among emotional intelligence, so the hypothesis stating

that “the subjects belonging to urban locale would show as high emotional

intelligence as compared to the subjects belonging to rural locale” has been

rejected.

This finding was also supported in study (1) and the reasons and

interpretation of the results have already been made there.

In order to study the combined effect of all the three independent

variables i.e. home environment, sex and locale on emotional intelligence, the

interaction effects have also been studied. Out of the three ‘first order

interactions’ one is the interaction between home environment and sex. Table

(5.3) and figure 5(iv) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of four

subgroups formed on the basis of home environment and sex.


four subgroups formed on the basis of home environment and sex

(n in each cell is given in parenthesis)

Sex Home environment

Favourable (high) Unfavourable (low)

Male Mean=64.52 Mean =64.38

SD=10.31 SD=10.76

(n=149) (n=135)


SD=9.62 SD=10.99

(n=131) (n=145)

Figure 5(iv) Home Environment x Sex interaction profile based on the data of

table (5.3)

As shown in table (5.2) (Summary of ANOVA), the interaction

between home environment and sex is found to be insignificant (F=0.618,

P>.05). It further reveals that the difference between the means of favourable

home environment scores and unfavourable home environment scores for

male subjects is statistically not different from the difference between the

mean of favourable home-environment scores and unfavourable home-

environment scores for female subjects. Thus, it can be concluded that home

environment x sex interaction is insignificant. This insignificant interaction


are not dependent on difference in favourable and unfavouralbe home

environment. It may also be interpreted as, the EI scores of the subjects

having favourable and unfavourble home environment are not dependent on

different sexes. In other words, the insignificant F-ratio proved that both the

factors i.e. home environment and sex are independent in exerting their

influences on emotional intelligence. Another interaction is between home

environment and locale. The following table (table 5.4) shows the average

emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of four subgroups on the basis of

home environment and locale.


four subgroups on the basis of home environment and locale (n

in each cell is given in parenthesis). Locale Home environment

Favourable (high) Unfavourable (low) Urban Mean=64.41 Mean =63.49

SD=10.25 SD=10.77 (n=148) (n=163)

Rural Mean=64.41 Mean=63.32 SD=9.70 SD=11.12 (n=132) (n=117)

Figure 5(v) Home environment x Locale interaction profile based on the data

of table (5.4)

As shown in table (5.2) the F- ratio of the interaction between home

environment and locale is found to be insignificant (F=0.017, P>0.05). It

indicates that the difference between the means of favourable home

environment and unfavourable home environment of urban group of subjects

is not statistically different from the difference between the means of

favourable home environment and unfavourable home environment scores of

rural group of subjects. Thus, it can be concluded that home environment x

locale interaction is insignificant.

This insignificant interaction reveals that the emotional intelligence

scores of the subjects of favourable and unfavourable home environment are

nearly the same as for rural and urban locale. It may also be stated that effect

of favourable and unfavourable home environment does not depend on the

difference in rural and urban locale; or the effect of rural and urban locale on

EI does not depend on difference in favourable and unfavourable home

environment.


emotional intelligence scores of the subject of four subgroups formed on the

basis of sex and locale is presented in the following table (5.5) and figure

5(vi).



cell is given in parenthesis).

Sex Locale

Urban Rural


SD=10.55 SD=10.47

(n=126) (n=158)


SD=10.52 SD=9.97

(n=185) (n=91)

Figure 5(vi) Sex X Locale interaction profile based on the data of table (5.5)

As observing the table (5.2) the F-ratio of the interaction between Sex

and locale is found to be insignificant (F=3.836, P>0.05). It reveals that the


locale is not statistically different from the difference between the means of


sex and locale interaction is insignificant. This insignificant F- ratio points

out that sex and locale produce insignificant differences in emotional


depend on different levels of locale i.e. rural and urban.

Further, the second order interaction effect was studied among the

three independent variables i.e. home environment, sex and locale, to know

their combined effect on emotional intelligence. The average emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects of eight subgroups formed on the basis of

home environment , sex and locale are shown in table (5.1) and figure 5(vii)

Figure 5(vii) Home environment x Sex x Locale interaction profile based on

the data of table (5.1)

The obtained F-ratio for home environment, sex and locale interaction

is 3.323 (F= 3.323, P>0.05), which is insignificant. It implies that home

environment, sex and locale of the subject did not appear to interact with

reference to emotional intelligence.

From the insignificant interaction it may be concluded that difference

in emotional intelligence exhibited by subjects having favorable and

unfavorable home environment does not vary considerably because of the

difference in sex and locale. Furthermore, home environment x sex

interaction is same for the rural and urban locale subject, or home

environment x locale interaction does not differ for the male and female

subjects; or sex or locale interaction is same for the subjects of favorable and

unfavorable home environment sub groups.

Thus, the above discussion shows that, all the three factors i.e. home

environment, sex and locale, does not have any significant main effect

interaction effects on emotional intelligence. Study (6) Social Support and Emotional Intelligence

The next variable to be measured with reference to emotional

intelligence, in the present study is social support. In order to examine the

role of social support in predicting emotional intelligence by using three-way

ANOVA statistic, social support was considered as the first independent

variable taken into two levels i.e. high and low. The next independent

variable is sex, also taken at two levels (categories) i.e. male and female, and

the third independent variable is locale, which is also considered with two

levels (groups) i.e. urban and rural. For dividing the subjects into high and

low social support groups the same process was applied as mentioned earlier

in the interpretation section of aggression and emotional intelligence. In this

way the subjects were divided into various sub-groups as per the

requirements of 2x2x2 ANOVA formed on the basis of social support, sex

and locale. Then a three-way analysis of variance was computed, which was

expected to give an overall estimate of the differences in emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects due to social support, sex and locale. The

average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects falling in different cells

of ANOVA table are presented in table 6.1.

Table (6.1) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects and

S.D for the eight sub-groups formed on the basis of social support, sex and


Sex Social Support

Low High


Male Mean =59.85 Mean =58.78 Mean=86.89 Mean=71.12

SD=10.13 SD=8.78 SD=8.24 SD=8.96

(n=66) (n=79) (n=66) (n=82

Female Mean=59.80 Mean=59.17 Mean=67.26 Mean=65.65

SD=10.10 SD=9.58 SD=10.12 SD=10.80

(n=89 (n=46) (n=92) (n=40)

The sixth problem undertaken in the present research was to verify

whether the subjects perceiving high social support differ significantly in

their emotional intelligence in comparison of the subjects perceiving low

social support. It was hypothesized that the subjects perceiving high social

support would show high emotional intelligence as compared to the subjects

perceiving low social support.

Figure 6(i) Average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects having high

and low social support

Now, as observing figure 6(i), it is clear that the average emotional

intelligence scores of the subjects of high and low social support are 68.55

and 59.41 respectively. It indicates that subjects perceiving high social

support have high emotional intelligence while, subjects perceiving low

social support have low emotional intelligence. When the difference of these

two groups were tested in F-test, the obtained F-ratio was found to be

significant at very high level (F= 110.105, p<.01), (table 6.2).


table (6.1)


df Mean Square

F-ratio Sig

Social Support (A) 10090.311 1 10090.311 110.105 *0.01 Sex (B) 363.746 1 363.746 3.969 Ns Locale (C) 10.134 1 10.134 0.111 Ns Social Support x Sex (AxB)

452.903 1 452.903 4.942 Ns

Social Support x Locale (AxC)

44.737 1 44.737 0.488 Ns

Sex x Locale (BxC) 90.418 1 90.418 0.987 Ns Social Support x Sex x Locale (AxBxC)

151.154 1 151.154 1.649 Ns

Within Cell (SSw) 50586.748 552 91.643 Total 63384.698 559

(* P< 0.01, Ns= not significant)

The significant F-ratio indicates that social support has a significant

main effect on emotional intelligence of the subjects. The significant F-ratio

therefore, confirms the hypothesis stating that, “the subjects perceiving high

social support show a high emotional intelligence as compared to the subjects

perceiving low social support”. This result is in evidence with the findings of

Schmidt and Andrykowski (2005), who have revealed that high emotional

intelligence could buffer against the negative impact of toxic social

environment and also, high social constraints with low emotional intelligence

is associated with greater distress. Similarly, Austin, Saklofske and Eagan

(2005), and Brown and Schutte (2006), have also revealed significant positive

association of social support and social network size with emotional

intelligence. Furthermore, Ciarrochi, Chan and Bajgar (2001) have also found

positive correlation between emotional intelligence and social support.

Social support has emerged out as a significant predictor of many

health related factors. People who interact closely with friends and relatives

are better able to avoid illness, and if illness occurs, it recovers sooner than

those peoples who are interpersonally isolated. Social support can generally

be referred as the availability and dependability that a person gets from

people closely associated with him (Handerson et al., 1978). The kind of help

that a person receives from others is more concerned with quality and

quantity of help extended by different sources and this is of many types, for

e.g. emotional, personal, informational and instrumental. The emotional

support consists of warmth and friendliness, reflect opportunity for

expression of concern, encouragement and trust. Similarly, informational

support helps in defining, understanding and coping with problematic events.

While, instrumental support reflects access to practical services and material

resources. Overall, a good social support indicates for a better survival of an

individual. Therefore, social support is necessary for well being of an

individual. Whereas, lack of social support has been associated with risk of

emotional problems, excessive worry, self-preoccupation and stress

proneness (Blazer, 1982; House et al., 1982). Studies have been revealed that,

social support can influence health by making a person less likely to

experience negative emotions (Cohen and Herbert, 1996; Cohen, 1988). It

contributes to positive adjustment with increased well-being (Branda et al.,

1980; Cohen and Wills, 1985). Studies on social support have also revealed

that having close and supportive friends is valuable to emotional health, and a

sense of belongingness in supportive relationships is extremely important for

emotional health (Scott, 2007). The above referred findings relates good/ high

social support with good emotional health and better interpersonal

relationships with positive adjustment. These are the components which

amply constitutes emotional intelligence of an individual. The finding of the

present study also indicates that those persons who possess a high social

support also possess high emotional intelligence as compared to those who

were lacking a good amount of social support. The above mentioned studies

and their findings supports the result of the present study that the subjects

perceiving high social support were also possessing a high emotional

intelligence as compared to the subjects perceiving low social support.

Therefore, it may be concluded that there is a significant positive relationship

between emotional intelligence and social support of the subjects.




subjects Figure 6(ii) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the


considered as one of the main effect disregarding social support and locale, it

was found that, the F-ratio for sex is 3.969, which is insignificant (p>.05). It

implies that sex does not have any significant main effect on emotional

intelligence. The figure 6(ii) showing the mean difference of emotional

intelligence between male and female subjects also indicates that males

possess higher emotional intelligence than females. The obtained F-ratio

which was found to be insignificant, denotes that the hypothesis stating that

“the male subjects would show low emotional intelligence than the female

subjects” has been rejected. This finding was also supported in study (1).

Various investigators have observed the similar results (e.g. Chu, 2002; Hunt

and Evans, 2004; Mishra and Ranjan, 2008; Tannous and Matar, 2010). The

reasons for high emotional intelligence for male subjects as compared to

females has already been discussed earlier in study (1).

The third main effect of considered in the present study was to find out



to rural and urban locale

Figure 6(iii) presents the average emotional intelligence scores of the

subjects belonging to rural and urban locales as 64.05 and 63.92 respectively.

When locale is considered as one of the main effect disregarding social

support and sex it was found that the F-ratio for locale has been found to be

0.0111 which is not significant at any level of confidence. The figure 6(iii)

showing the mean difference of emotional intelligence between urban and

rural locale also indicates that subjects belonging to rural locale are

possessing high emotional intelligence in comparison to their urban

counterparts. Therefore the insignificant F-ratio indicates that there is not any

significant main effect of locale exists on the emotional intelligence of the

subjects. Thus, it may be concluded that, the research hypothesis stating that

“subjects belonging to urban locale would show a high emotional intelligence

as compared to the subjects belonging to rural locale” has been rejected. This

finding is in consonance with the results obtained by the study of

Gowdhaman and Murugan (2009) that there is not found any significant

relationship between emotional intelligence and locale. In this connection,

Shanwal (2004) have found that the rural childrens have higher emotional

intelligence in comparison of the urban ones, which supports the result of

present study, as the average emotional intelligence scores of rural subjects is

higher than that of urban subjects [figure 6 (iii)]. Next is the interpretation of

the interaction of the interaction effects of all the three independent variables

i.e. social support, sex and locale on emotional intelligence. Out of the three

first order interactions, one is the interaction between social support and sex.

Table (6.3) and figure 6(iv) shows the average emotional intelligence scores

of four sub-groups formed on the basis of social support and sex.

Table (6.3) Average emotional intelligence scores and S.D of four sub-groups formed on the basis of social support and sex (n in each cell is given in parenthesis)

Figure 6(iv) Social support x Sex interaction profile based on the data of table

(6.3)

Table (6.2) (summary of ANOVA) depicts that the interaction

between social support and sex is found to be insignificant (F= 4.942, p>.05).

It implies that the difference between the means of high social support and

Sex Social Support

Low High


SD=9.40 SD=8.69 (n=145) (n=148)


SD=9.90 SD=10.31 (n=135) (n=132)

low social support of male subjects is statistically not different from the

difference between the means of high social support and low social support of

female subjects. Thus, it can be concluded that social support x sex

interaction is found to be insignificant. This insignificant interaction reveals

that the emotional intelligence scores of the male and female subjects are not

dependent on difference in low and high social support. It may also be

interpreted as, the emotional intelligence scores of the subjects having low

and high social support are not dependent on different sexes. In other words,

the insignificant F-ratio proved that both the factors i.e. social support and

sex are independent in exerting their influences on emotional intelligence.

Another interaction is between social support and locale. The following table

(6.4) and figure 6(v) shows the average emotional intelligence scores of the

subjects of four subgroups on the basis of social support and locale.


four subgroups on the basis of social support and locale (n in


Locale Social Support

Low High


SD=10.08 SD=9.39

(n=155) (n=158)

Rural Mean =58.90 Mean= 69.33

SD=9.05 SD=9.90

(n=125) (n=122)

Figure 6(v) Social support x Locale interaction profile based on the data of

table (6.4)

As observing the table (6.2) it has been that the interaction between

social support and locale is found to be insignificant (F= 0.488, p>.05). It

indicates that the difference between the means of high social support and

low social support of urban group of subjects is not statistically different from

the difference between the means of high social support and low social

support for rural group of subjects. Thus, it can be concluded that social

support x locale interaction is insignificant. This insignificant interaction

reveals that the emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of low and high

social support sub-groups are nearly the same as for rural and urban locale. It

may also be referred that effect of low and high social support on emotional

intelligence does not depend on the difference in rural and urban locale; or

the effect of rural and urban locale on emotional intelligence does not depend

on difference in low and high social support.

The next first order interaction is between sex and locale, disregarding

social support. The average emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of

four sub-groups formed on the basis of sex and locale is shown in the table

(6.5) and figure 6(vi).




Figure 6(vi) Sex x Locale interaction profile based on the data of table

(6.5)

Sex Social Support

Low High

Male Mean =64.37 Mean =65.04

SD=10.26 SD=10.81

(n=132) (n=161)

Female Mean =63.59 Mean=62.19

SD=10.75 SD=10.62

(n=181) (n=86)


and locale is found to be insignificant. (F = 0.987, p>.005). It reveals that the




sex x locale interaction is insignificant. This insignificant F-ratio points out



depend on different levels of locale, i.e. urban and rural. Next is the second

order interaction effect which was studied for knowing the combined effect

of social support, sex and locale on emotional intelligence. The average

emotional intelligence scores of the subjects of eight subgroups formed on

the basis of social support, sex and locale are shown in table (6.1) and figure

6(vii)

Figure 6(vii) Social Support x Sex x Locale interaction profile based on the

data of table (6.1)

The obtained F-ratio for social support, sex and locale interaction is

1.649 which is not significant at any level of confidence (p>.05). It implies

that social support, sex and locale of the subjects did not appear to interact

with reference to emotional intelligence. From the insignificant interaction it

may be concluded that difference in emotional intelligence exhibited by high

and low social support subgroups does not vary considerably because of the

difference in sex and locale. Social support x sex interaction is same for the

subjects of rural and urban locale; or social support x locale interaction does

not differ for the male and female subjects; or sex x locale interaction is same

for the subjects of low and high social support subgroups.

Thus, the above discussion shows that, among all the three factors i.e.

social support, sex and locale, only social support plays a significant role in

predicting emotional intelligence. However, none of the first order and

second order interactions were found to be significant.

Results (Part-B)

As it has been mentioned previously that, the present research work is

intended to measure the effect of certain psycho-social variables viz.

aggression, self concept, extraversion, neuroticism, home environment, social

support, sex and locale, on the outcome variable i.e. emotional intelligence.

For the purpose of the present research endeavor, it was hypothesized that the

emotional intelligence (along with its different dimensions viz. interpersonal

awareness, intrapersonal awareness, interpersonal management, and

intrapersonal management) would be significantly related to the aforesaid

psycho-social variables.

Consequently, it seems appropriate to use ‘stepwise multiple regression

analysis’ for the purpose. This has generated overall five multiple regression

analysis tables, four for each different dimensions of the emotional

intelligence and one for emotional intelligence as such. The results are

presented below:

Table (i) Stepwise Multiple Regression with ‘Emotional Intelligence’ as

criterion variable and other psycho-social variables as significant

predictors.

Sno. Independent

Variable

R R Square Beta F-value Sig.

1. Self Concept 0.512 0.262 0.317 263.434 0.000

2. Social Support 0.585 0.343 0.247 193.420 0.000

3. Neuroticism 0.629 0.395 -0.276 161.304 0.000

4. Extraversion 0.641 0.410 -0.118 128.788 0.000

5. Aggression 0.648 0.420 -0.197 106.892 0.000

An observation of the above table (i) clearly indicates that self-concept,

social support, neuroticism, extraversion, and aggression emerged as

significant predictors of overall emotional intelligence. However none of the

other independent variables (home environment, locale and sex) contribute

significantly to overall emotional intelligence. The standardized coefficient

for self-concept (B=0.317) indicates that there is a significant positive

relationship between self-concept and emotional intelligence (F= 263.434,

P<.01), further indicating it as a stronger predictor as compared to others.

Therefore it is inferred that brighter self-concept indicates increase in

emotional intelligence of the individual. This finding confirms the hypothesis

that, subjects showing bright self-concept would show high emotional

intelligence as compared to the subjects showing poor self-concept.

The variable that has second largest contribution is social support (B=

0.247), followed by neuroticism, extraversion, and aggression in that order.

Which shows the contribution of sense of support to emotional intelligence of

the individuals. Similar to self-concept, social support is also having a

significant positive relationship with emotional intelligence (F = 193.42, P

<.01). Therefore it is inferred that more the social support a person has, better

will be his/her emotional intelligence. It confirms the hypothesis that,

subjects perceiving high social support would show high emotional

intelligence as compared to the subjects perceiving low social support.

Neuroticism is found to have a significant negative relationship with EI

(F= 161.340, p<0.01) and (B= -0.276) which denotes that more neurotic the

individual is, less will be its emotional intelligence. Therefore, it confirms the

hypothesis that, subjects belonging to neuroticism personality dimension

would score low on emotional intelligence as compared to their counterparts.

Moving ahead to the interpretation of next predictor i.e. extraversion.

Results indicates that extraversion personality dimension have a negative

relationship with emotional intelligence. A negative standardized coefficient

(B= -0.118) indicates its significant (F= 128.788, P< .01) but negative

relationship with the criterion variable i.e. EI. Therefore it is stated that

extraversion personality dimension contributes negatively for EI. This finding

does not confirm the hypothesis that, the subjects belonging to extraversion

personality dimension would show high level of emotional intelligence as

compared to their counterparts.

Similarly, for aggression (B= -0.047) it is also inferred that though it is

emerged as a significant predictor (F= 106.892, P< .01), it have a negative

relationship with emotional intelligence. This means higher the aggression, of

an individual lower will be its emotional intelligence. This finding supports

the hypothesis that, subjects scoring high on aggression would show a lower

level of emotional intelligence as compared to the subjects showing low

aggression.

The above findings were reported for overall emotional intelligence

score of the subjects. Following is the interpretation of the results obtained

for each of the four dimensions of emotional intelligence (included in this

study) viz. intrapersonal awareness, interpersonal awareness, intrapersonal

management, interpersonal management.

Table (ii) Stepwise Multiple Regression with ‘Intrapersonal Awareness’ as


predictors.

Sno. Independent

Variable


1. Neuroticism 0.528 0.279 -0.367 287.161 0.000

2. Self Concept 0.612 0.374 0.312 222.031 0.000

3. Social Support 0.625 0.390 0.123 158.225 0.000

4. Aggression 0.631 0.398 -0.088 122.369 0.000

Table (ii) shows that neuroticism, self-concept, social support, and

aggression emerged as significant predictors of ‘intrapersonal awareness’

dimension of emotional intelligence. However, extraversion, home

environment, sex, and locale did not contribute significantly to this dimension

of emotional intelligence, Further showing a significant negative relationship

(F= 287.161, P<.01 and B= -0.367) which indicates that highly neurotic

persons will show a decrease in their intrapersonal awareness (i.e. being

aware of his or her own emotions). Neuroticism becomes a stronger predictor

of intrapersonal awareness as compared to the other predictors. The variable

that has second largest contribution in predicting intrapersonal awareness is

self-concept followed by social support and aggression in that order. Self-

concept contributes positively (B = .312) to intrapersonal awareness with an

F-value of 222.031 (P<.01). Similarly, social support is also showing

significant positive relationship with intrapersonal awareness (B = 0.123)

with an F-value of 158.225 (P<.01), Finally aggression contributes negatively

to intrapersonal awareness (B =-0.088) with an F-value of 122.369 (P<.01). It

indicates that individuals scoring high on their aggression level will show a

lower intrapersonal awareness, as it is quite obvious that persons frequently

showing aggressive behavior will definitely weak on being aware of his/her

emotions.

Table (iii) Stepwise Multiple Regression with ‘Interpersonal Awareness’ as


predictors.

Sno. Independent

Variable


1. Neuroticism 0.421 0.177 -0.284 159.754 0.000

2. Self Concept 0.494 0.244 0.257 119.731 0.000

3. Social Support 0.509 0.259 0.121 86.446 0.000

4. Aggression 0.513 0.264 -0.067 660240 0.000

The next dimension of emotional intelligence to be interpreted is

‘interpersonal awareness’ and the significant predictors of this dimension are

the same as that of ‘intrapersonal awareness’ (see table (iii)). However, rest

of the other independent variables (i.e. extraversion, home environment, sex

and locale) did not emerged as significant predictors. Neuroticism

contributing significantly to it (F = 159.754, P<.01) and further showing a

negative relationship (B = -0.284) with interpersonal awareness. Therefore it

is inferred that neurotic individuals face problems in being aware of their own

emotions and also that of persons surrounding them. The second largest

significant positive contribution is made by self-concept (B = 0.257) with an

additional variance of 6% (R sq. change = 0.06) and F-value = 119.731

(P<.01) indicating that individuals having good self-concept are also good on

their interpersonal awareness. Similarly, social support contributing

positively to interpersonal awareness (B = 0.121) with a significant F value of

86.446 (P< .01) indicating that high social support leads to high interpersonal

awareness. Lastly, aggression is found significant predictor (F = 66.240,

P<.01) showing a negative relationship (B = -0.067) with interpersonal

awareness. It indicates that high aggression is associated with interpersonal

awareness.

Table (iv) Stepwise Multiple Regression with ‘Intrapersonal Management’

as criterion variable and other psycho-social variables as

significant predictors.

Sno. Independent

Variable


1. Social Support 0.242 0.059 0.184 46.252 0.000

2. Extraversion 0.290 0.084 -0.158 34.073 0.000

3. Self concept 0.323 0.105 0.148 28.860 0.000

An observation of table (iv)) clearly indicates that the ‘intrapersonal

management’ dimension of emotional Intelligence is significantly predicted

by social support, extraversion, and self-concept. However, none of the other

psycho-social predictors considered in this study, contributed significantly for

this dimension of emotional intelligence. As compared to the other predictors,

social support emerged as a strongest predictor (B = 0.184) of intrapersonal

management (i.e. managing one’s own emotions). Social support shows a

significant positive relationship with intrapersonal management dimension of

EI (F = 46.252, P< .01). The next predictor which shows second largest

contribution in the prediction of intrapersonal management is extraversion

dimension of personality (B = -0.158) and is having a significant negative

relationship to this dimension of EI (F= 34.073, P< .01). This indicates that

individual scoring high on extraversion personality dimension would

consequently score low on intrapersonal management. Finally self-concept

emerged out as a significant predictor (F= 28.860, P<.01), showing

significant positive relationship (B = 0.148) with intrapersonal management

dimension of EI. This indicates that individuals having bright self-concepts

results into better intrapersonal management.

Table (v) Stepwise Multiple Regression with ‘Interpersonal Management’

as criterion variable and other psycho-social variables as

significant predictors.

Sno. Independent

Variable


1. Social Support 0.234 0.105 0.232 87.065 0.000

2. Self Concept 0.394 0.155 0.189 68.158 0.000

3. Aggression 0.410 0.168 -0.103 49.828 0.000

4. Sex 0.420 0.176 -0.101 39.583 0.000

5. Extraversion 0.428 0.183 -0.099 33.063 0.000

6. Neuroticism 0.437 0.191 -0.101 28.994 0.000

Table (v) shows that social support, self-concept, aggression, sex,

extraversion, and neuroticism, emerged as significant predictors of the last

dimension of emotional intelligence considered in this study i.e.

‘interpersonal management’, which deals with management of emotions with

other peoples. Again, home environment, and locale did not contribute

significantly to interpersonal management. Social support (F= 87.067, P<

.01) shows a significant positive relationship with interpersonal management

(B = 0.232). It indicates that individuals gaining high social support are better

in their interpersonal management of emotions. Further, self-concept

contributes significantly (F= 68.158, P< .01) having positive relationship (B

= 0.189) with interpersonal management. It indicates that good self-concept

is associated with better interpersonal management. The next significant

predictor is aggression (F= 49.828, P<.01) and contributes negatively (B = -

0.103) to interpersonal management. It indicates that aggressive individuals

are having weak interpersonal management skills. Unlike for other

dimensions of emotional intelligence, sex has been emerged out as significant

predictor of interpersonal management (F= 39.583, P<.01) and shows a

negative standardized regression coefficient (B = -0.101). It indicates that

male subjects have higher emotional intelligence as compared to females.

Finally extraversion and neuroticism are emerged out as the least

contributing predictors, associated negatively to interpersonal management

dimension of emotional intelligence (B for Ex = -0.099 and B for Nr= -0.101)

with an F value of 33.063 and 28.994 (both P< .01) respectively.

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