CHAPTER 5UnderstandingLogicandRecognizingLogicalFallacies

ATISSUEHowFreeShouldFreeSpeechBe?Askalmostanyonewhatmakesasocietyfreeandoneoftheanswerswillbefreespeech.Thefreeexpressionofideasisintegraltofreedomitself,andprotectingthatfreedomispartofademocraticgovernment’sjob:inasense,thismeansthatmostpeopleseefreespeechasoneofthecornerstonesofequality.Everyone’sopinioncan,andindeedmust,beheard.

Butwhathappenswhenthoseopinionsareoffensive,orevendangerous?Iffreespeechhaslimits,isitstillfree?Whenweconsiderthequestionabstractly,it’sveryeasytosayno.Howcanitbefreeiftherearelimitstohowfreeitis,andwhogetstodecidethoselimits?It’sdangeroustogiveanyonethatkindofauthority.Afterall,thereisnoshortageofhistoricalevidencelinkingcensorshipwithtyranny.Whenwethinkoflimitingfreespeech,wethinkoftotalitarianregimes,likeNaziGermany.

ButwhathappenswhenthepeoplearguingfortherighttobeheardareNazisthemselves?InplaceslikeIsraelandFrance,wherethelegacyofNaziGermanyisstillalltooreal,therearesomethingsyousimplycannotsay.Anti-Semiticlanguageisconsidered“hatespeech,”andthosewhoperpetuateitfacestifffines,ifnotimprisonment.ItmightseemoutrageoustothoseofuswholiveintheUnitedStates.IfyouliveinIsrael,however,chancesarethatthelegacyoftheHolocaustisnotthatfaraway.AndtherearepeopleinFrancewhocanstillrememberthedayNazitroopsmarchedintoParis.Shouldtheyhavetolistentowhatneo-Nazishavetosay?

OnAmericancollegecampuses,freespeechisoftenconsideredfundamentaltoaliberaleducation,andinmanyways,encounteringideasthatmakeyoufeeluncomfortableisanecessarypartofacollegeeducation.Butthequestionoffreespeechiseasytoanswerwhenit’stheoretical:whentheissueismadetangiblebyracistlanguageorbyadiscussionofatraumaticexperience,itbecomesmuchmoredifficulttonavigate.Forexample,shouldAfrican-Americanstudentshavetolistento“then-word”inadiscussionofHuckleberryFinn?Shouldanineteen-year-oldrapesurvivorhavetositthroughadiscussionofrapeinAmericanliterature?Advocatesofunlimitedfreespeech

respondtotheseobjectionsbypointingoutthatcensorshipisaslipperyslope:onceyoucanpenalizeapersonforsayingsomethinghateful,therewillbenoendtothesubjectsthatwillbeoff-limits.

Laterinthischapter,youwillbeaskedtothinkmoreaboutthisissue.Youwillbegivenseveralsourcestoconsiderandaskedtowritealogicalargumentthattakesapositiononhowfreefreespeechshouldbe.

ThewordlogiccomesfromtheGreekwordlogos,roughlytranslatedas“word,”“thought,”“principle,”or“reason.”Logicisconcernedwiththeprinciplesofcorrectreasoning.Bystudyinglogic,youlearntherulesthatdeterminethevalidityofarguments.Inotherwords,logicenablesyoutotellwhetheraconclusioncorrectlyfollowsfromasetofstatementsorassumptions.

Whyshouldyoustudylogic?Oneansweristhatlogicenablesyoutomakevalidpointsanddrawsoundconclusions.Anunderstandingoflogicalsoenablesyoutoevaluatetheargumentsofothers.Whenyouunderstandthebasicprinciplesoflogic,youknowhowtotellthedifferencebetweenastrongargumentandaweakargument—betweenonethatiswellreasonedandonethatisnot.Thisabilitycanhelpyoucutthroughthetangleofjumbledthoughtthatcharacterizesmanyoftheargumentsyouencounterdaily—ontelevision,radio,andtheInternet;inthepress;andfromfriends.Finally,logicenablesyoutocommunicateclearlyandforcefully.Understandingthecharacteristicsofgoodargumentshelpsyoutopresentyourownideasinacoherentandevencompellingway.

KobeBryant,whoplayedfortheLosAngelesLakers,arguingwitharefereeMarkRalston/Getty

Specificrulesdeterminethecriteriayouusetodevelop(andtoevaluate)argumentslogically.Forthisreason,youshouldbecomefamiliarwiththebasicprinciplesofdeductiveandinductivereasoning—twoimportantwaysinformationisorganizedinargumentativeessays.(Keepinmindthatasingleargumentativeessaymightcontainbothdeductivereasoningandinductivereasoning.Forthesakeofclarity,however,wewilldiscussthemseparately.)

ThomasJefferson©RMN-GrandPalais/ArtResource,NY

WhatIsDeductiveReasoning?Mostofususedeductivereasoningeveryday—athome,inschool,onthejob,andinourcommunities—usuallywithoutevenrealizingit.

Deductivereasoningbeginswithpremises—statementsorassumptionsonwhichanargumentisbasedorfromwhichconclusionsaredrawn.Deductivereasoningmovesfromgeneralstatements,orpremises,tospecificconclusions.Theprocessofdeductionhastraditionallybeenillustratedwithasyllogism,whichconsistsofamajorpremise,aminorpremise,andaconclusion:

MAJORPREMISE AllAmericansareguaranteedfreedomofspeechbytheConstitution.MINORPREMISE SarahisanAmerican.CONCLUSION Therefore,Sarahisguaranteedfreedomofspeech.

Asyllogismbeginswithamajorpremise—ageneralstatementthatrelatestwoterms.Itthenmovestoaminorpremise—anexampleofthestatementthatwasmadeinthemajorpremise.Ifthesetwopremisesarelinkedcorrectly,aconclusionthatissupportedbythetwopremiseslogicallyfollows.(Noticethattheconclusioninthesyllogismabovecontainsnotermsthatdonotappearinthemajorandminorpremises.)Thestrengthofdeductivereasoningisthatifreadersacceptthemajorandminorpremises,theconclusionmustnecessarilyfollow.

ThomasJeffersonuseddeductivereasoningintheDeclarationofIndependence.When,in1776,theContinentalCongressaskedhimtodraftthisdocument,JeffersonknewthathehadtowriteapowerfulargumentthatwouldconvincetheworldthattheAmericancolonieswerejustifiedinbreakingawayfromEngland.Heknewhowcompellingadeductiveargumentcouldbe,andsoheorganizedtheDeclarationofIndependencetoreflectthetraditionalstructureofdeductivelogic.Itcontainsamajorpremise,aminorpremise(supportedbyevidence),andaconclusion.Expressedasasyllogism,hereistheargumentthatJeffersonused:

MAJORPREMISE

Whenagovernmentoppressespeople,thepeoplehavearighttorebelagainstthatgovernment.

MINORPREMISE

ThegovernmentofEnglandoppressestheAmericanpeople.

CONCLUSION Therefore,theAmericanpeoplehavetherighttorebelagainstthegovernmentofEngland.

Inpractice,deductiveargumentsaremorecomplicatedthanthesimplethree-partsyllogism

suggests.Still,itisimportanttounderstandthebasicstructureofasyllogismbecauseasyllogismenablesyoutomapoutyourargument,totestit,andtoseeifitmakessense.

ConstructingSoundSyllogismsAsyllogismisvalidwhenitsconclusionfollowslogicallyfromitspremises.Asyllogismistruewhenthepremisesareconsistentwiththefacts.Tobesound,asyllogismmustbebothvalidandtrue.

Considerthefollowingvalidsyllogism:

MAJORPREMISE Allstateuniversitiesmustaccommodatedisabledstudents.MINORPREMISE UCLAisastateuniversity.CONCLUSION Therefore,UCLAmustaccommodatedisabledstudents.

Inthevalidsyllogismabove,boththemajorpremiseandtheminorpremisearefactualstatements.Ifboththesepremisesaretrue,thentheconclusionmustalsobetrue.Becausethesyllogismisbothvalidandtrue,itisalsosound.

However,asyllogismcanbevalidwithoutbeingtrue.Forexample,lookatthefollowingsyllogism:

MAJORPREMISE Allrecipientsofsupportservicesarewealthy.MINORPREMISE Dillonisarecipientofsupportservices.CONCLUSION Therefore,Dilloniswealthy.

Asillogicalasitmayseem,thissyllogismisvalid:itsconclusionfollowslogicallyfromitspremises.Themajorpremisestatesthatrecipientsofsupportservices—allsuchrecipients—arewealthy.However,thispremiseisclearlyfalse:somerecipientsofsupportservicesmaybewealthy,butmoreareprobablynot.Forthisreason,eventhoughthesyllogismisvalid,itisnottrue.

Keepinmindthatvalidityisatestofanargument’sstructure,notofitssoundness.Evenifasyllogism’smajorandminorpremisesaretrue,itsconclusionmaynotnecessarilybevalid.

Considerthefollowingexamplesofinvalidsyllogisms.

SyllogismwithanIllogicalMiddleTermAsyllogismwithanillogicalmiddletermcannotbevalid.Themiddletermofasyllogismisthetermthatoccursinboththemajorandminorpremisesbutnotintheconclusion.(Itlinksthemajortermandtheminortermtogetherinthesyllogism.)Amiddletermofavalidsyllogismmustrefertoallmembersofthedesignatedclassorgroup—forexample,alldogs,allpeople,

allmen,orallwomen.Considerthefollowinginvalidsyllogism:

MAJORPREMISE Alldogsaremammals.MINORPREMISE Somemammalsareporpoises.CONCLUSION Therefore,someporpoisesaredogs.

Cartoonstock.com

Eventhoughthestatementsinthemajorandminorpremisesaretrue,thesyllogismisnotvalid.Mammalsisthemiddletermbecauseitappearsinboththemajorandminorpremises.However,becausethemiddletermmammaldoesnotrefertoallmammals,itcannotlogicallyleadtoa

validconclusion.Inthesyllogismthatfollows,themiddletermdoesrefertoallmembersofthedesignated

group,sothesyllogismisvalid:

MAJORPREMISE Alldogsaremammals.MINORPREMISE Ralphisadog.CONCLUSION Therefore,Ralphisamammal.

SyllogismwithaKeyTermWhoseMeaningShiftsAsyllogismthatcontainsakeytermwhosemeaningshiftscannotbevalid.Forthisreason,themeaningofakeytermmustremainconsistentthroughoutthesyllogism.

Considerthefollowinginvalidsyllogism:

MAJORPREMISE Onlymaniscapableofanalyticalreasoning.MINORPREMISE Annaisnotaman.CONCLUSION Therefore,Annaisnotcapableofanalyticalreasoning.

Inthemajorpremise,manreferstomankind—thatis,toallhumanbeings.Intheminorpremise,however,manreferstomales.Inthefollowingvalidsyllogism,thekeytermsremainconsistent:

MAJORPREMISE Alleducatedhumanbeingsarecapableofanalyticalreasoning.MINORPREMISE Annaisaneducatedhumanbeing.CONCLUSION Therefore,Annaiscapableofanalyticalreasoning.

SyllogismwithNegativePremiseIfeitherpremiseinasyllogismisnegative,thentheconclusionmustalsobenegative.

Thefollowingsyllogismisnotvalid:

MAJORPREMISE Onlysenatorscanvoteonlegislation.MINORPREMISE Nostudentsaresenators.CONCLUSION Therefore,studentscanvoteonlegislation.

Becauseoneofthepremisesofthesyllogismaboveisnegative(“Nostudentsaresenators”),theonlypossiblevalidconclusionmustalsobenegative(“Therefore,nostudentscanvoteonlegislation”).

Ifbothpremisesarenegative,however,thesyllogismcannothaveavalidconclusion:

MAJORPREMISE Disabledstudentsmaynotbedeniedspecialhelp.

MINORPREMISE Jenisnotadisabledstudent.CONCLUSION Therefore,Jenmaynotbedeniedspecialhelp.

Inthesyllogismabove,bothpremisesarenegative.Forthisreason,thesyllogismcannothaveavalidconclusion.(HowcanJendeservespecialhelpifsheisnotadisabledstudent?)Tohaveavalidconclusion,thissyllogismmusthaveonlyonenegativepremise:

MAJORPREMISE Disabledstudentsmaynotbedeniedspecialhelp.MINORPREMISE Jenisadisabledstudent.CONCLUSION Therefore,Jenmaynotbedeniedspecialhelp.

RecognizingEnthymemesAnenthymemeisasyllogismwithoneortwopartsofitsargument—usually,themajorpremise—missing.Ineverydaylife,weoftenleaveoutpartsofarguments—mostofthetimebecausewethinktheyaresoobvious(orclearlyimplied)thattheydon’tneedtobestated.Weassumethatthepeoplehearingorreadingtheargumentswilleasilybeabletofillinthemissingparts.

Manyenthymemesarepresentedasaconclusionplusareason.Considerthefollowingenthymeme:

Roberthaslied,sohecannotbetrusted.

Inthestatementabove,theminorpremiseandtheconclusionarestated,butthemajorpremiseisonlyimplied.Oncethemissingtermhasbeensupplied,thelogicalstructureoftheenthymemebecomesclear:

MAJORPREMISE Peoplewholiecannotbetrusted.MINORPREMISE Roberthaslied.CONCLUSION Therefore,Robertcannotbetrusted.

Itisimportanttoidentifyenthymemesinargumentsyoureadbecausesomewriters,knowingthatreadersoftenacceptenthymemesuncritically,usethemintentionallytounfairlyinfluencereaders.

Considerthisenthymeme:

BecauseLizreceivesatuitiongrant,sheshouldwork.

Althoughsomereadersmightchallengethisstatement,otherswillacceptituncritically.Whenyousupplythemissingpremise,however,theunderlyingassumptionsoftheenthymemebecomeclear—andopentoquestion:

MAJORPREMISE Allstudentswhoreceivetuitiongrantsshouldwork.MINORPREMISE Lizreceivesatuitiongrant.CONCLUSION Therefore,Lizshouldwork.

Perhapssomepeoplewhoreceivetuitiongrantsshouldwork,butshouldeveryone?Whatabout

thosewhoareillorwhohavedisabilities?Whataboutthosewhoparticipateinvarsitysportsorhaveunpaidinternships?Theenthymemeoversimplifiestheissueandshouldnotbeacceptedatfacevalue.

Atfirstglance,thefollowingenthymememightseemtomakesense:

NorthKoreaisruledbyadictator,soitshouldbeinvaded.

However,considerthesameenthymemewiththemissingtermsupplied:

MAJORPREMISE Allcountriesgovernedbydictatorsshouldbeinvaded.MINORPREMISE NorthKoreaisacountrygovernedbyadictator.CONCLUSION Therefore,NorthKoreashouldbeinvaded.

Oncethemissingmajorpremisehasbeensupplied,theflawsintheargumentbecomeclear.Shouldallnationsgovernedbydictatorsbeinvaded?Whoshoulddotheinvading?Whowouldmakethisdecision?Whatwouldbetheconsequencesofsuchapolicy?Asthisenthymemeillustrates,ifthemajorpremiseofadeductiveargumentisquestionable,thentherestoftheargumentwillalsobeflawed.

Bumper-StickerThinking

Bumperstickersoftentaketheformofenthymemes:

Self-controlbeatsbirthcontrol.

Peaceispatriotic.

Awoman’splaceisintheHouse…andintheSenate.

Bancrueltraps.

Evolutionisatheory—kindoflikegravity.

Iworkandpaytaxessowealthypeopledon’thaveto.

TheBiblesaysit,Ibelieveit,thatsettlesit.

Nooneneedsaminkcoatexceptamink.

Celebratediversity.

Mostoften,bumperstickersstatejusttheconclusionofanargumentandomitboththemajorandminorpremises.Carefulreaders,however,willsupplythemissingpremisesandthusdeterminewhethertheargumentissound.

Bumperstickersonacar.©DaveG.Houser/Corbis.

EXERCISE5.1Readthefollowingparagraph.Then,restateitsmainargumentasasyllogism.

DrunkDrivingShouldBeLegalized

Inorderingstatestoenforcetougherdrunkdrivingstandardsbymakingitacrimetodrivewithablood-alcoholconcentrationof.08percentorhigher,governmenthasbeenpermitted to criminalize the content of drivers’ blood instead of their actions. Theassumption that a driver who has been drinking automatically presents a danger tosociety even when no harm has been caused is a blatant violation of civil liberties.Governmentshouldnotbeconcernedwiththeprobabilityandpropensityofadrinkingdriver to cause an accident; rather, laws should deal only with actions that damagepersonorproperty.Untiltheyactuallycommitacrime,drunkdriversshouldbeliberatedfromtheforceofthelaw.(From“LegalizeDrunkDriving,”byLlewellynH.RockwellJr.,WorldNetDaily.com)

EXERCISE5.2Readthefollowingparagraphs.Then,answerthequestionsthatfollow.

AnimalsAreEqualtoHumans

According to the United Nations, a person may not be killed, exploited, cruellytreated,intimidated,orimprisonedfornogoodreason.Putanotherway,peopleshouldbeabletoliveinpeace,accordingtotheirownneedsandpreferences.

Who should have these rights? Do they apply to people of all races? Children?Peoplewhoarebraindamagedorsenile?Thedeclarationmakesitclearthatbasicrightsapplytoeveryone.Tomakeaslaveofsomeonewhoisintellectuallyhandicappedorofa

differentraceisnomorejustifiablethantomakeaslaveofanyoneelse.The reason why these rights apply to everyone is simple: regardless of our

differences, we all experience a life with its mosaic of thoughts and feelings. Thisappliesequallytotheprincessandthehobo,thebrainsurgeonandthedunce.Ourvalueasindividualsarisesfromthiscapacitytoexperiencelife,notbecauseofanyintelligenceorusefulnesstoothers.Everypersonhasaninherentvalue,anddeservestobetreatedwithrespectinordertomakethemostoftheiruniquelifeexperience.(Excerptedfrom“HumanandAnimalRights,”byAnimalLiberation.org)

1. Whatunstatedassumptionsaboutthesubjectdoesthewritermake?Doesthewriterexpectreaderstoaccepttheseassumptions?Howcanyoutell?

2. Whatkindofsupportingevidencedoesthewriterprovide?

3. Whatisthemajorpremiseofthisargument?

4. Expresstheargumentthatispresentedintheseparagraphsasasyllogism.

5. Evaluatethesyllogismyouconstructed.Isittrue?Isitvalid?Isitsound?

EXERCISE5.3Readthefollowingfivearguments,anddeterminewhethereachissound.(Tohelpyouevaluatethearguments,youmaywanttotryarrangingthemassyllogisms.)

1. Allhumansaremortal.Maxishuman.Therefore,Maxismortal.

2. Alisonshouldordereggsoroatmealforbreakfast.Shewon’tordereggs,sosheshouldorderoatmeal.

3. Allreptilesarecold-blooded.Geckosarereptiles.Therefore,geckosarecold-blooded.

4. Alltriangleshavethreeequalsides.Thefigureontheboardisatriangle.Therefore,itmusthavethreeequalsides.

EXERCISE5.4Readthefollowingtenenthymemes,whichcomefrombumperstickers.Supplythemissingpremises,andthenevaluatethelogicofeachargument.

1. Ifyouloveyourpet,don’teatmeat.

2. Waristerrorism.

3. Realmendon’taskfordirections.

4. Immigrationisthesincerestformofflattery.

5. IeatlocalbecauseIcan.

6. Don’tblameme;Ivotedfortheotherguy.

7. Ireadbannedbooks.

8. Loveistheonlysolution.

9. It’sachild,notachoice.

10. Think.It’spatriotic.

WritingDeductiveArgumentsDeductiveargumentsbeginwithageneralprincipleandreachaspecificconclusion.Theydevelopthatprinciplewithlogicalargumentsthataresupportedbyevidence—facts,observations,theopinionsofexperts,andsoon.Keepinmindthatnosinglestructureissuitableforalldeductive(orinductive)arguments.Differentissuesanddifferentaudienceswilldeterminehowyouarrangeyourideas.

Ingeneral,deductiveessayscanbestructuredinthefollowingway:

INTRODUCTION PresentsanoverviewoftheissueStatesthethesisBODY Presentsevidence:point1insupportofthethesis

Presentsevidence:point2insupportofthethesisPresentsevidence:point3insupportofthethesisRefutestheargumentsagainstthethesis

CONCLUSION BringsargumenttoacloseConcludingstatementreinforcesthethesis

EXERCISE5.5Thefollowingstudentessay,“CollegeShouldBeforEveryone,”includesalltheelementsofadeductiveargument.Thestudentwhowrotethisessaywasrespondingtothequestion,“Shouldeveryonebeencouragedtogotocollege?”Afteryoureadtheessay,answerthequestionsonpages136–137,consultingtheoutlineonpage133ifnecessary.

CRYSTALSANCHEZ

COLLEGESHOULDBEFOREVERYONEUntilthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,collegewaslargelyfortherich.TheG.I.Bill,

whichpaidfortheeducationofveteransreturningfromWorldWarII,helpedtochangethissituation.By1956,nearlyhalfofthosewhohadservedinWorldWarII,almost7.8millionpeople,hadtakenadvantageofthisbenefit(U.S.DepartmentofVeteransAffairs).Eventoday,however,collegegraduatesarestillaminorityofthepopulation.AccordingtotheU.S.CensusBureau,only27.5percentofAmericansagetwenty-fiveorolderhaveabachelor’sdegree.In

manyways,thissituationisnotgoodforthecountry.Whyshouldcollegebejustfortheprivilegedfew?Becauseacollegeeducationprovidesimportantbenefits,suchasincreasedwagesforourcitizensandastrongerdemocracyforournation,everyU.S.citizenshouldhavetheopportunitytoattendcollege. 1

OverviewofissueThesisstatement

Onereasoneveryoneshouldhavetheopportunitytogotocollegeisthatacollegeeducationgivespeopleachancetodiscoverwhattheyaregoodat.Itishardforpeopletoknowiftheyareinterestedinstatisticsorpublicpolicyormarketingunlesstheyhavethechancetoexplorethesesubjects.College—andonlycollege—cangivethemthisopportunity.Whereelsecanapersonbeexposedtoalargenumberofcoursestaughtbyexpertsinavarietyofdisciplines?Suchexposurecanopennewareasofinterestandleadtoamuchwidersetofcareeroptions—andthustoabetterlife(Stout).Withoutcollege,mostpeoplehavelimitedoptionsandneverrealizetheirtruepotential.Althoughlifeandworkexperiencescanteachapersonalotofthings,thebesteducationisthebroadkindthatcollegeoffers. 2

Evidence:Point1

Anotherreasoneveryoneshouldhavetheopportunitytogotocollegeisthatmoreandmorejobsarebeingphasedoutormovedoverseas.AmericansshouldgotocollegetodeveloptheskillsthattheywillneedtogetthebestjobsthatwillremainintheUnitedStates.Overthelastfewdecades,midleveljobshavebeensteadilydisappearing.Ifthistrendcontinues,theAmericanworkforcewillbedividedintwo.Onepartwillconsistoflow-wage,low-skillservicejobs,suchasthoseinfoodpreparationandretailsales,andtheotherpartwillbehigh-skill,high-wagejobs,suchasthoseinmanagementandprofessionalfieldslikebusinessandengineering.Accordingtoarecentreport,tocompeteinthefuturejobmarket,Americanswillneedtheskillsthatcollegesteach.Futureworkerswillneedtobeproblemsolverswhocanthinkbothcriticallyandcreativelyandwhocanadapttounpredictablesituations.Theywillalsoneedaglobalawareness,knowledgeofmanyculturesanddisciplines,andtheabilitytocommunicateindifferentformsofmedia.Tomastertheseskills,Americanshavetobecollegeeducated(“TenSkillsfortheFutureWorkforce”). 3

Evidence:Point2

Perhapsthebestreasoneveryoneshouldhavetheopportunitytogotocollegeisthateducationisanessentialcomponentofademocraticsociety.Thosewithouttheabilitytounderstandandanalyzenewsreportsarenotcapableofcontributingtothesocial,political,andeconomicgrowthofthecountry.Democracyrequiresinformedcitizenswhowillbeabletoanalyzecomplicatedissuesinareassuchasfinance,education,andpublichealth;weighcompetingclaimsofthoserunningforpublicoffice;andassessthejobperformanceofelectedofficials.Byprovidingstudentswiththeopportunitytostudysubjectssuchashistory,philosophy,English,andpoliticalscience,collegesanduniversitieshelpthemtoacquirethecritical-thinkingskillsthattheywillneedtoparticipatefullyinAmericandemocracy. 4

Evidence:Point3

Somepeopleopposetheideathateveryoneshouldhavetheopportunitytoattendcollege.Oneobjectionisthateducationalresourcesarelimited.Somesaythatifstudentsentercollegesingreatnumberstheywilloverwhelmthehigher-educationsystem(Stout).Thisargumentexaggeratestheproblem.Aswithanyotherproduct,ifdemandrises,supplywillrisetomeetthatdemand.Inaddition,withtoday’sextensivedistance-learningoptionsandtheavailabilityofopeneducationalresources—free,high-quality,digitalmaterials—itwillbepossibletoeducatelargenumbersofstudentsatareasonablecost(“OpenEducationalResources”).Anotherobjectiontoencouragingeveryonetoattendcollegeisthatunderpreparedstudentswillrequiresomuchhelpthattheywilltaketimeandattentionawayfrombetterstudents.Thisargumentisactuallyaredherring.°Mostschoolsalreadyprovideresources,suchastutoringandwritingcenters,forstudentswhoneedthem.Withsomeadditionalfunding,theseschoolscouldexpandtheservicestheyalreadyprovide.Thiscourseofactionwillbeexpensive,butitisalotlessexpensivethanleavingmillionsofyoungpeopleunpreparedforjobsofthefuture. 5

RefutationofopposingargumentsAnirrelevantsideissueusedasadiversion

AcollegeeducationgavethereturningveteransofWorldWarIImanyopportunitiesandincreasedtheirvaluetothenation.Today,acollegeeducationcoulddothesameformanycitizens.Thiscountryhasanobligationtoofferallstudentsaccesstoanaffordableandusefuleducation.Notonlywillthestudentsbenefitpersonally,butthenationwillalso.Ifwedonotadequatelypreparestudentsforthefuture,thenwewillallsuffertheconsequences. 6

Concludingstatement

WorksCited

“OpenEducationalResources.”CenterforAmericanProgress,7Feb.2012,www.americanprogress.org/issues/labor/news/2012/02/07/11114/open-educational-resources/.

Stout,Chris.“TopFiveReasonsWhyYouShouldChoosetoGotoCollege.”EzineArticles,2008,ezinearticles.com/?Top-Five-Reasons-Why-You-Should-Choose-To-Go-To-College&id=384395.

“TenSkillsfortheFutureWorkforce.”TheAtlantic,22June2011,www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2011/06/ten-skills-for-future-work/473484/.

UnitedStates,CensusBureau.“Bachelor’sDegreeAttainmentTops30PercentfortheFirstTime,CensusBureauReports.”USCensusBureauNewsroom,23Feb.2012,www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/education/cb12-33.html.

---,DepartmentofVeteransAffairs.“BornofControversy:TheGIBillofRights.”GIBillHistory,20Oct.2008,www.va.gov/opa/publications/celebrate/gi-bill.pdf.

IdentifyingtheElementsofaDeductiveArgument

1. Paraphrasethisessay’sthesis.

2. Whatargumentsdoesthewriterpresentasevidencetosupportherthesis?Whichdoyouthinkisthestrongestargument?Whichistheweakest?

3. Whatopposingargumentsdoesthewriteraddress?Whatotheropposingargumentscouldshehaveaddressed?

4. Whatpointsdoestheconclusionemphasize?Doyouthinkthatanyotherpointsshouldbeemphasized?

5. Constructasyllogismthatexpressestheessay’sargument.Then,checkyoursyllogismtomakesureitissound.

WhatIsInductiveReasoning?Inductivereasoningbeginswithspecificobservations(orevidence)andgoesontodrawageneralconclusion.Youcanseehowinductionworksbylookingatthefollowinglistofobservations:

Nearly80percentofoceanpollutioncomesfromrunoff.

Runoffpollutioncanmakeoceanwaterunsafeforfishandpeople.

Insomeareas,runoffpollutionhasforcedbeachestobeclosed.

Drinkingwatercanbecontaminatedbyrunoff.

MorethanonethirdofshellfishgrowinginwatersintheUnitedStatesarecontaminatedbyrunoff.

Eachyear,millionsofdollarsarespenttorestorepollutedareas.

Thereisacausalrelationshipbetweenagriculturalrunoffandwater-borneorganismsthatdamagefish.

Afterstudyingtheseobservations,youcanuseinductivereasoningtoreachtheconclusionthatrunoffpollution(rainwaterthatbecomespollutedafteritcomesincontactwithearth-boundpollutantssuchasfertilizer,petwaste,sewage,andpesticides)isaproblemthatmustbeaddressed.

Signwarningofcontaminatedwater©KristaKennella/ZUMAPRESS

Childrenlearnabouttheworldbyusinginductivereasoning.Forexample,veryyoungchildrenseethatiftheypushalightswitchup,thelightsinaroomgoon.Iftheyrepeatthisactionoverandover,theyreachtheconclusionthateverytimetheypushaswitch,thelightswillgoon.Ofcourse,thisconclusiondoesnotalwaysfollow.Forexample,thelightbulbmaybeburnedoutortheswitchmaybedamaged.Evenso,theirconclusionusuallyholdstrue.Childrenalsouseinductiontogeneralizeaboutwhatissafeandwhatisdangerous.Ifeverytimetheymeetadog,theencounterispleasant,theybegintothinkthatalldogsarefriendly.Ifatsomepoint,however,adogsnapsatthem,theyquestionthestrengthoftheirconclusionandmodifytheirbehavioraccordingly.

Scientistsalsouseinduction.In1620,SirFrancisBaconfirstproposedthescientificmethod—awayofusinginductiontofindanswerstoquestions.Whenusingthescientificmethod,aresearcherproposesahypothesisandthenmakesaseriesofobservationstotestthishypothesis.Basedontheseobservations,theresearcherarrivesataconclusionthatconfirms,modifies,ordisprovesthehypothesis.

ReachingInductiveConclusions

Herearesomeofthewaysyoucanuseinductivereasoningtoreachconclusions:

Particulartogeneral:Thisformofinductionoccurswhenyoureachageneralconclusion

basedonparticularpiecesofevidence.Forexample,supposeyouwalkintoabathroomandseethatthemirrorsarefogged.Youalsonoticethatthebathtubhasdropsofwateronitssidesandthatthebathroomflooriswet.Inaddition,youseeadamptoweldrapedoverthesink.Puttingalltheseobservationstogether,youconcludethatsomeonehasrecentlytakenabath.(Detectivesuseinductionwhengatheringcluestosolveacrime.)

Generaltogeneral:Thisformofinductionoccurswhenyoudrawaconclusionbasedontheconsistencyofyourobservations.Forexample,ifyoudeterminethatAppleInc.hasmadegoodproductsforalongtime,youconcludeitwillcontinuetomakegoodproducts.

Generaltoparticular:Thisformofinductionoccurswhenyoudrawaconclusionbasedonwhatyougenerallyknowtobetrue.Forexample,ifyoubelievethatcarsmadebytheFordMotorCompanyarereliable,thenyouconcludethataFordFocuswillbeareliablecar.

Particulartoparticular:Thisformofinductionoccurswhenyouassumethatbecausesomethingworksinonesituation,itwillalsoworkinanothersimilarsituation.Forexample,ifKrazyGluefixedthebrokenhandleofonecup,thenyouconcludeitwillprobablyfixthebrokenhandleofanothercup.

MakingInferencesUnlikededuction,whichreachesaconclusionbasedoninformationprovidedbythemajorandminorpremises,inductionuseswhatyouknowtomakeastatementaboutsomethingthatyoudon’tknow.Whiledeductiveargumentscanbejudgedinabsoluteterms(theyareeithervalidorinvalid),inductiveargumentsarejudgedinrelativeterms(theyareeitherstrongorweak).

Youreachaninductiveconclusionbymakinganinference—astatementaboutwhatisunknownbasedonwhatisknown.(Inotherwords,youlookattheevidenceandtrytofigureoutwhatisgoingon.)Forthisreason,thereisalwaysagapbetweenyourobservationsandyourconclusion.Tobridgethisgap,youhavetomakeaninductiveleap—astretchoftheimaginationthatenablesyoutodrawanacceptableconclusion.Therefore,inductiveconclusionsarenevercertain(asdeductiveconclusionsare)butonlyprobable.Themoreevidenceyouprovide,thestrongerandmoreprobableyourconclusions(andyourargument)are.

Public-opinionpollsillustratehowinferencesareusedtoreachinductiveconclusions.Politiciansandnewsorganizationsroutinelyusepublic-opinionpollstoassesssupport(orlackofsupport)foraparticularpolicy,proposal,orpoliticalcandidate.Aftersurveyingasamplepopulation—registeredvoters,forexample—pollstersreachconclusionsbasedontheirresponses.Inotherwords,byaskingquestionsandstudyingtheresponsesofasamplegroupofpeople,pollstersmakeinferencesaboutthelargergroup—forexample,whichpoliticalcandidateisaheadandbyhowmuch.Howsolidtheseinferencesaredependstoagreatextentonthesamplepopulationsthepollsterssurvey.Inanelection,forexample,apollofrandomlychosenindividualswillbelessaccuratethanapollofregisteredvotersorlikelyvoters.Inaddition,otherfactors(suchasthesizeofthesampleandthewayquestionsareworded)candeterminetherelativestrengthoftheinductiveconclusion.

Aswithallinferences,agapexistsbetweenapoll’sdata—theresponsestothequestions—andtheconclusion.Thelargerandmorerepresentativethesample,thesmallertheinductiveleapnecessarytoreachaconclusionandthemoreaccuratethepoll.Ifthegapbetweenthedataandtheconclusionistoobig,however,thepollsterswillbeaccusedofmakingahastygeneralization(seep.150).Remember,nomatterhowmuchsupportyoupresent,aninductiveconclusionisonlyprobable,nevercertain.Thebestyoucandoispresentaconvincingcaseandhopethatyouraudiencewillacceptit.

ConstructingStrongInductiveArgumentsWhenyouuseinductivereasoning,yourconclusionisonlyasstrongastheevidence—thefacts,details,orexamples—thatyouusetosupportit.Forthisreason,youshouldbeonthelookoutforthefollowingproblemsthatcanoccurwhenyoutrytoreachaninductiveconclusion.

GeneralizationTooBroadTheconclusionyoustatecannotgobeyondthescopeofyourevidence.Yourevidencemustsupportyourgeneralization.Forinstance,youcannotsurveyjustthreeinternationalstudentsinyourschoolandconcludethattheschooldoesnotgofarenoughtoaccommodateinternationalstudents.Toreachsuchaconclusion,youwouldhavetoconsideralargenumberofinternationalstudents.

InsufficientEvidenceTheevidenceonwhichyoubaseaninductiveconclusionmustberepresentative,notatypicalorbiased.Forexample,youcannotconcludethatstudentsaresatisfiedwiththecourseofferingsatyourschoolbysamplingjustfirst-yearstudents.Tobevalid,yourconclusionshouldbebasedonresponsesfromacrosssectionofstudentsfromallyears.

IrrelevantEvidenceYourevidencehastosupportyourconclusion.Ifitdoesnot,itisirrelevant.Forexample,ifyouassertthatmanyadjunctfacultymembersmakesubstantialcontributionstoyourschool,yoursupportingexamplesmustbeadjunctfaculty,nottenuredorjuniorfaculty.

ExceptionstotheRuleThereisalwaysachancethatyouwilloverlookanexceptionthatmayaffectthestrengthofyourconclusion.Forexample,noteveryonewhohasadisabilityneedsspecialaccommodations,andnoteveryonewhorequiresspecialaccommodationsneedsthesameservices.Forthisreason,youshouldavoidusingwordslikeevery,all,andalwaysandinsteadusewordslikemost,many,andusually.

EXERCISE5.6

Readthefollowingarguments,anddecidewhethereachisadeductiveargumentoraninductiveargumentandwrite“D”or“I”onthelinesbelow.

1. Freedomofspeechisacentralprincipleofourformofgovernment.Forthisreason,studentsshouldbeallowedtowearT-shirtsthatcallforthelegalizationofmarijuana.________

2. TheChevyCruzeEcogetstwenty-sevenmilesagalloninthecityandforty-sixmilesagallononthehighway.TheHondaAccordgetstwenty-sevenmilesagalloninthecityandthirty-sixmilesagallononthehighway.Therefore,itmakesmoresenseformetobuytheChevyCruzeEco.________

3. InEdgarAllanPoe’sshortstory“TheCaskofAmontillado,”MontresorflattersFortunato.Helureshimtohisvaultswherehestoreswine.MontresorthengetsFortunatodrunkandchainshimtothewallofacrypt.Finally,Montresoruncoversapileofbuildingmaterialandwallsuptheentrancetothecrypt.Clearly,MontresorhascarefullyplannedtomurderFortunatoforaverylongtime.________

4. Allpeopleshouldhavetherighttodiewithdignity.Garrettisaterminallyillpatient,soheshouldhaveaccesstodoctor-assistedsuicide.________

5. Lastweek,wefoundunacceptablyhighlevelsofpollutionintheocean.OnMonday,wealsofoundhighlevelsofpollution.Today,wefoundevenhigherlevelsofpollution.Weshouldclosetheoceanbeachestoswimmersuntilwecanfindthesourceofthisproblem.________

EXERCISE5.7Readthefollowingarguments.Then,decidewhethertheyaredeductiveorinductive.Iftheyareinductivearguments,evaluatetheirstrength.Iftheyaredeductivearguments,evaluatetheirsoundness.

1. TheFarmer’sAlmanacsaysthatthiswinterwillbeverycold.TheNationalWeatherServicealsopredictsthatthiswinterwillbeverycold.So,thisshouldbeacoldwinter.

2. ManywalledtownsinEuropedonotletpeopledrivecarsintotheircenters.SanGimignanoisawalledtowninEurope.Itislikelythatwewillnotbeabletodriveourcarintoitscenter.

3. Thewindowatthebackofthehouseisbroken.Thereisabaseballonthefloor.Afewminutesago,Isawtwoboysplayingcatchinaneighbor’syard.Theymusthavethrowntheballthroughthewindow.

4. EverytimeIgotothebeachIgetsunburned.IguessIshouldstopgoingtothebeach.

5. Allmyinstructorshaveadvanceddegrees.GeorgeMartinisoneofmyinstructors.Therefore,GeorgeMartinhasanadvanceddegree.

6. Mylasttwoboyfriendscheatedonme.Allmenareterrible.

7. IreadastudypublishedbyapharmaceuticalcompanythatsaidthatAccutanewassafe.Maybethegovernmentwastooquicktopullthisdrugoffthemarket.

8. Chaseisnotverygood-looking,andhedressesbadly.Idon’tknowhowhecanbeagoodarchitect.

9. Nofictionalcharacterhaseverhadafanclub.HarryPotterdoes,butheistheexception.

10. Twoweeksago,myinstructorrefusedtoacceptalatepaper.Shedidthesamethinglastweek.Yesterday,shealsotoldsomeonethatbecausehispaperwaslate,shewouldn’tacceptit.I’dbettergetmypaperinontime.

EXERCISE5.8Readtheinductiveparagraphbelow,writtenbystudentPoojaVaidya,andanswerthequestionsthatfollowit.

Yearsago,whenmyfriendtookmetoagamebetweenthePhiladelphiaEaglesandtheDallasCowboysinPhiladelphia,IlearnedalittlebitaboutAmericanfootballandalotabout thebehaviorof football fans.Manyof thePhiladelphia fansweredressed ingreen andwhite football jerseys, eachwith a player’s name andnumber on the back.OnefanhadhisfacepaintedgreenandworeagreencapewithalargewhiteEonit.Heran up and down the aisles in his section and led cheers.When the teamwas ahead,everyonejoinedin.Whentheteamfellbehind,thisfanliterallyfellonhisknees,cried,and begged the people in the stands to support the Eagles. (After the game, severalpeopleaskedhimforhisautograph.)Agroupofsixfanssatwithoutshirts.Theyworegreenwigs,andeachhadoneletteroftheteam’snamepaintedonhisbarechest.Eventhough the temperaturewas below freezing, none of these fans ever put on his shirt.Beforethegame,manyfanshadbeendrinkingattailgatepartiesintheparkinglot,andasthegameprogressed,theycontinuedtodrinkbeerinthestadium.Bythebeginningofthe second half, fights were breaking out all over the stadium. Guards grabbed thepeoplewhowerefightingandescortedthemtoaholdingareaunderthestadiumwhereajudgeheld“EaglesCourt.”Atonepoint,afanwearingaDallasjerseytriedtositdownintherowbehindme.SomeoftheEaglesfansweresothreateningthatthepolicehadtoescorttheDallasfanoutofthestandsforhisownprotection.Whenthegameendedinan Eagles victory, the fans sang the team’s fight song as they left the stadium. IconcludedthatformanyEaglesfans,adayatthestadiumisanopportunitytoengageinbehaviorthatinanyothercontextwouldbeunacceptableandevenabnormal.

1. Whichofthefollowingstatementscouldyounotconcludefromthisparagraph?

a. AllEaglesfansactinoutrageouswaysatgames.

b. Atfootballgames,thefansinthestandscanbeasviolentastheplayersonthefield.

c. Theatmosphereatthestadiumcausesotherwisenormalpeopletoactabnormally.

d. Spectatorsportsencouragefanstoactinabnormalways.

e. Somepeoplegetsocaughtupintheexcitementofagamethattheyactinuncharacteristicways.

2. Paraphrasethewriter’sconclusion.Whatevidenceisprovidedtosupportthisconclusion?

3. Whatadditionalevidencecouldthewriterhaveprovided?Isthisadditionalevidencenecessary,ordoestheconclusionstandwithoutit?

4. Thewritermakesaninductiveleaptoreachtheparagraph’sconclusion.Doyouthinkthisleapistoogreat?

5. Doesthisparagraphmakeastronginductiveargument?Whyorwhynot?

PhiladelphiaEaglesfans©ChrisGraythen/GettyImagesSports

WritingInductiveArgumentsInductiveargumentsbeginwithevidence(specificfacts,observations,expertopinion,andsoon),drawinferencesfromtheevidence,andreachaconclusionbymakinganinductiveleap.Keepinmindthatinductiveargumentsareonlyasstrongasthelinkbetweentheevidenceandtheconclusion,sothestrongerthislinkis,thestrongertheargumentwillbe.

Inductiveessaysfrequentlyhavethefollowingstructure:

INTRODUCTION PresentstheissueStatesthethesis

BODY Presentsevidence:facts,observations,expertopinion,andsoonDrawsinferencesfromtheevidenceRefutestheargumentsagainstthethesis

CONCLUSION BringsargumenttoacloseConcludingstatementreinforcesthethesis

EXERCISE5.9Thefollowingessayincludesalltheelementsofaninductiveargument.Afteryoureadtheessay,answerthequestionsonpage146,consultingtheoutlineaboveifnecessary.

ThisessayappearedinSlateonSeptember2,2006.

WILLIAMSALETAN

PLEASEDONOTFEEDTHEHUMANSDug

In1894,CongressestablishedLaborDaytohonorthosewho“fromrudenaturehavedelved°andcarvedallthegrandeurwebehold.”Inthecenturysince,thegrandeurofhumanachievementhasmultiplied.Overthepastfourdecades,globalpopulationhasdoubled,butfoodoutput,drivenbyincreasesinproductivity,hasoutpacedit.Poverty,infantmortality,andhungerarereceding.Forthefirsttimeinourplanet’shistory,aspeciesnolongerlivesatthemercyofscarcity.Wehavelearnedtofeedourselves. 1

We’velearnedsowell,infact,thatwe’regettingfat.NotjusttheUnitedStatesorEurope,butthewholeworld.Egyptian,Mexican,andSouthAfricanwomenarenowasfatasAmericans.FarmoreFilipinoadultsarenowoverweightthanunderweight.InChina,oneinfiveadultsistooheavy,andtherateofoverweightchildrenis28timeshigherthanitwastwodecadesago.InThailand,Kuwait,andTunisia,obesity,diabetes,andheartdiseasearesoaring. 2

Hungerisfarfromconquered.Butsince1990,theglobalrateofmalnutritionhasdeclinedanaverageof1.7percentayear.BasedondatafromtheWorldHealthOrganizationandtheU.N.FoodandAgricultureOrganization,foreverytwopeoplewhoaremalnourished,threearenowoverweightorobese.Amongwomen,eveninmostAfricancountries,overweighthassurpassedunderweight.Thebalanceofperilisshifting. 3

Fatisnolongerarichman’sdisease.Formiddle-andhigh-incomeAmericans,theobesityrateis29percent.Forlow-incomeAmericans,it’s35percent.Amongmiddle-andhigh-incomekidsaged15to17,therateofoverweightis14percent.Amonglow-incomekidsinthesameagebracket,it’s23percent.Globally,weighthastendedtorisewithincome.ButastudyinVancouver,Canada,publishedthreemonthsago,foundthatpreschoolersin“food-insecure”householdsweretwiceaslikelyasotherkidstobeoverweightorobese.InBraziliancities,thepoorhavebecomefatterthantherich. 4

Technologically,thisisatriumph.Intheearlydaysofourspecies,eventherichstarved.BarryPopkin,anutritionalepidemiologistattheUniversityofNorthCarolina,divideshistoryintoseveralepochs.Inthehunter-gathererera,ifwedidn’tfindfood,wedied.Intheagriculturalera,ifourcropsperished,wedied.Intheindustrialera,faminereceded,butinfectiousdiseaseskilledus.Nowwe’veachievedsuchcontrolovernaturethatwe’redyingnotofstarvationorinfection,butofabundance.Natureisn’tkillingus.We’rekillingourselves. 5

Youdon’thavetogohungryanymore;wecanfillyouwithfatsandcarbsmorecheaplythanever.Youdon’thavetochaseyourfood;wecanbringittoyou.Youdon’thavetocookit;wecandeliveritready-to-eat.Youdon’thavetoeatitbeforeitspoils;wecanpumpitfullofpreservativessoitlastsforever.Youdon’tevenhavetostopwhenyou’refull.We’vegotsomuchfoodtosell,wewantyoutokeepeating. 6

WhathappenedinAmericaishappeningeverywhere,onlyfaster.Fewerfarmers’markets,moreprocessedfood.Fewerwholegrains,morerefinedones.Moresweeteners,salt,andtransfats.Cheapermeat,moreanimalfat.Lesscooking,moreeatingout.Biggerportions,moresnacks. 7

KentuckyFriedChickenandPizzaHutarespreadingacrosstheplanet.Coca-Colaisinmorethan200countries.HalfofMcDonald’sbusinessisoverseas.InChina,animal-fatintakehastripledin20years.By2020,meatconsumptionindevelopingcountrieswillgrowby106millionmetrictons,outstrippinggrowthindevelopedcountriesbyafactorofmorethanfive.Fortyyearsago,toaffordahigh-fatdiet,yourcountryneededagrossnationalproductpercapitaofnearly$1,500.Nowthepriceishalfthat.Younolongerhavetoberichtodiearichman’sdeath. 8

Soon,it’llbeapoorman’sdeath.TherichhaveWholeFoods,gyms,andpersonaltrainers.Thepoorhave7-Eleven,Popeye’s,andstreetsunsafeforwalking.Whenmoney’stight,youfeedyourkidsatWendy’sandstockuponmacaroniandcheese.Atalunchbuffet,youdowhat

yourancestorsdid:storeallthefatyoucan. 9That’sthepunchline:Technologyhaschangedeverythingbutus.Weevolvedtosurvive

scarcity.Wecravefat.We’requicktogainweightandslowtoloseit.Doublewhatyouserveus,andwe’lldoublewhatweeat.Thankstotechnology,thedeprivationthatmadethesetraitsusefulisgone.Soisthelinkbetweenflavorsandnutrients.Themodernfoodindustrycansellyousweetnesswithoutfruit,saltwithoutprotein,creaminesswithoutmilk.Wecanfattenyouandstarveyouatthesametime. 10

“Weevolvedtosurvivescarcity.”

Andthat’sjustthedietsideoftheequation.Beforetechnology,adultmenhadtoexpendabout3,000caloriesaday.Nowtheyexpendabout2,000.LookatthenewSegwayscooter.Theoriginalmodelrelievedyouoftheneedtowalk,pedal,orbalance.Withthenewone,youdon’tevenhavetoturnthehandlebarsorstartitmanually.Intheory,Segwayisreplacingthecar.Inpractice,it’sreplacingthebody. 11

Incountryaftercountry,servicejobsarereplacinghardlabor.ThefolkswhofieldyourcustomerservicecallsinBangalorearesittingatdesks.NearlyeveryoneinChinahasatelevisionset.RememberwhenChineserodebikes?Inthepastsixyears,thenumberofcarstherehasgrownfromsixmillionto20million.MorethanoneinsevenChinesehasamotorizedvehicle,andhouseholdswithsuchvehicleshaveanobesityrate80percenthigherthantheirpeers. 12

Theanswertothesetrendsissimple.Wehavetoexercisemoreandchangethefoodweeat,donate,andsubsidize.Nextyear,forexample,theU.S.Women,Infants,andChildrenprogram,whichsubsidizesgroceriesforimpoverishedyoungsters,willbegintopayforfruitsandvegetables.For32years,theprogramhasfedtoddlerseggsandcheesebutnotonevegetable.Andwewonderwhypoorkidsarefat. 13

Thehardpartischangingourmentality.Wehaveadistortedbodyimage.We’resousedtonothavingenough,asaspecies,thatwecan’tbelievetheproblemistoomuch.FromChinatoAfricatoLatinAmerica,peoplearetryingtofattentheirkids.IjustgotbackfromavacationwithmyJewishmotherandJewishmother-in-law.TheytoldmeIneedtoeatmore. 14

Theotherthingblindingusisliberalguilt.We’resocaughtupintheideaofgivingthatwecan’tseetheimportanceofchangingbehaviorratherthanfillingbellies.Weknowbetterthantofeedbutteredpopcorntozooanimals,yetwesendittoafoodbankandcallourselveshumanitarians.Maybeweshouldaskwhatourfellowhumansactuallyneed. 15

IdentifyingtheElementsofanInductiveArgument1. Whatisthisessay’sthesis?Restateitinyourownwords.

2. WhydoyouthinkSaletanplacesthethesiswherehedoes?

3. WhatevidencedoesSaletanusetosupporthisconclusion?

4. WhatinductiveleapdoesSaletanmaketoreachhisconclusion?Doyouthinkheshouldhaveincludedmoreevidence?

5. Overall,doyouthinkSaletan’sinductiveargumentisrelativelystrongorweak?Explain.

RecognizingLogicalFallaciesWhenyouwriteargumentsincollege,youfollowcertainrulesthatensurefairness.Noteveryonewhowritesargumentsisfairorthorough,however.Sometimesyouwillencounterargumentsinwhichwritersattacktheopposition’sintelligenceorpatriotismandbasetheirargumentsonquestionable(orevenfalse)assumptions.Asconvincingastheseargumentscansometimesseem,theyarenotvalidbecausetheycontainfallacies—errorsinreasoningthatunderminethelogicofanargument.Familiarizingyourselfwiththemostcommonlogicalfallaciescanhelpyoutoevaluatetheargumentsofothersandtoconstructbetter,moreeffectiveargumentsofyourown.

Thefollowingpagesdefineandillustratesomelogicalfallaciesthatyoushouldlearntorecognizeandavoid.

BeggingtheQuestionThefallacyofbeggingthequestionassumesthatastatementisself-evident(ortrue)when

itactuallyrequiresproof.Aconclusionbasedonsuchassumptionscannotbevalid.Forexample,someonewhoisveryreligiouscouldstructureanargumentthefollowingway:

MAJORPREMISE EverythingintheBibleistrue.MINORPREMISE TheBiblesaysthatNoahbuiltanark.CONCLUSION Therefore,Noah’sArkreallyexisted.

Apersoncanaccepttheconclusionofthissyllogismonlyifheorshealsoacceptsthemajorpremise,whichhasnotbeenproventrue.Somepeoplemightfindthislineofreasoningconvincing,butotherswouldnot—eveniftheywerereligious.

Beggingthequestionoccursanytimesomeonepresentsadebatablestatementasifitweretrue.Forexample,lookatthefollowingstatement:

Youhaveunfairlylimitedmyrightoffreespeechbyrefusingtoprintmyeditorialinthecollegenewspaper.

Thisstatementbegsthequestionbecauseitassumeswhatitshouldbeproving—thatrefusingtoprintaneditorialviolatesaperson’srighttofreespeech.

CircularReasoning

Closelyrelatedtobeggingthequestion,circularreasoningoccurswhensomeonesupportsastatementbyrestatingitindifferentterms.Considerthefollowingstatement:

Stealingiswrongbecauseitisillegal.

Waterfall,byM.C.Escher.Theartworkcreatestheillusionofwaterflowinguphillandinacircle.Circularreasoningoccurswhentheconclusionofanargumentisthesameasoneofthepremises.M.C.Escher’s“Waterfall”©2012TheM.C.EscherCompany-Holland.Allrightsreserved.www.mcescher.com.

Theconclusionofthestatementonthepreviouspageisessentiallythesameasitsbeginning:stealing(whichisillegal)isagainstthelaw.Inotherwords,theargumentgoesinacircle.

Herearesomeotherexamplesofcircularreasoning:Lincolnwasagreatpresidentbecauseheisthebestpresidentweeverhad.

IamforequalrightsforwomenbecauseIamafeminist.

Illegalimmigrantsshouldbedeportedbecausetheyarebreakingthelaw.

Allofthestatementsabovehaveonethingincommon:theyattempttosupportastatementbysimplyrepeatingthestatementindifferentwords.

WeakAnalogyAnanalogyisacomparisonbetweentwoitems(orconcepts)—onefamiliarandoneunfamiliar.Whenyoumakeananalogy,youexplaintheunfamiliaritembycomparingittothefamiliaritem.

Althoughanalogiescanbeeffectiveinarguments,theyhavelimitations.Forexample,asenatorwhoopposedagovernmentbailoutofthefinancialindustryin2008madethefollowingargument:

Thisbailout isdoomedfromthestart. It’s likepouringmilk intoa leakingbucket.Aslongasyoukeeppouringmilk,thebucketstaysfull.Butwhenyoustop,themilkrunsouttheholeinthebottomofthebucket.Whatwe’redoingisthrowingmoneyintoabigbucket and not fixing the hole. We have to find the underlying problems that havecausedthispartofoureconomytogetintroubleandpasslegislationtosolvethem.

Theproblemwithusinganalogiessuchasthisoneisthatanalogiesareneverperfect.Thereisalwaysadifferencebetweenthetwothingsbeingcompared.Thelargerthisdifference,theweakertheanalogy—andtheweakertheargumentthatitsupports.Forexample,someonecouldpointouttothesenatorthatthefinancialindustry—andbyextension,thewholeeconomy—ismuchmorecomplexandmultifacetedthanaleakingbucket.Toanalyzetheeconomy,thesenatorwouldhavetoexpandhisdiscussionbeyondthissingleanalogy(whichcannotcarrytheweightoftheentireargument)aswellassupplytheevidencetosupporthiscontentionthatthebailoutwasamistakefromthestart.

AdHominemFallacy(PersonalAttack)TheadhominemFallacyoccurswhensomeoneattacksthecharacterorthemotivesofapersoninsteadoffocusingontheissues.Thislineofreasoningisillogicalbecauseitfocusesattentiononthepersonmakingtheargument,sidesteppingtheargumentitself.

Considerthefollowingstatement:

Dr.Thomson,I’mnotsurewhyweshouldbelieveanythingyouhavetosayaboutthiscommunityhealthcenter.Lastyear,youleftyourhusbandforanotherman.

TheaboveattackonDr.Thomson’scharacterisirrelevant;ithasnothingtodowithherideasaboutthecommunityhealthcenter.Sometimes,however,aperson’scharactermayhaveadirectrelationtotheissue.Forexample,ifDr.Thomsonhadinvestedinacompanythatsuppliedmedicalequipmenttothehealthcenter,thisfactwouldhavebeenrelevanttotheissueathand.

Theadhominemfallacyalsooccurswhenyouattempttoundermineanargumentbyassociatingitwithindividualswhoareeasilyattacked.Forexample,considerthisstatement:

Ithinkyourplantoprovideuniversalheathcareisinteresting.I’msureMarxandLeninwouldagreewithyou.

Insteadoffocusingonthespecificprovisionsofthehealth-careplan,theoppositionunfairly

associatesitwiththeideasofKarlMarxandVladimirLenin,twowell-knownCommunists.

AdhominemattackagainstCharlesDarwin,originatorofthetheoryofevolutionbynaturalselectionTheGrangerCollection

CreatingaStrawManThisfallacymostlikelygotitsnamefromtheuseofstrawdummiesinmilitaryandboxingtraining.Whenwriterscreateastrawman,theypresentaweakargumentthatcaneasilyberefuted.Insteadofattackingtherealissue,theyfocusonaweakerissueandgivetheimpression

thattheyhaveeffectivelyrefutedanopponent’sargument.Frequently,thestrawmanisanextremeoroversimplifiedversionoftheopponent’sactualposition.Forexample,duringadebateaboutraisingtheminimumwage,asenatormadethefollowingcomment:

Thosewhoopposeraisingtheminimumwageareheartless.Theyobviouslydon’tcareifchildrenstarve.

©SOTK2011/Alamy

Insteadoffocusingontheminimumwage,thesenatormisrepresentstheopposingpositionsothatitappearscruel.Asthisexampleshows,thestrawmanfallacyisdishonestbecauseitintentionallydistortsanopponent’spositiontomisleadreaders.

HastyorSweepingGeneralization(JumpingtoaConclusion)Ahastyorsweepinggeneralization(alsocalledjumpingtoaconclusion)occurswhensomeonereachesaconclusionthatisbasedontoolittleevidence.Manypeoplecommitthisfallacywithoutrealizingit.Forexample,whenRichardNixonwaselectedpresidentin1972,filmcriticPaulineKaelissupposedtohaveremarked,“Howcanthatbe?NooneIknowvotedforNixon!”ThegeneralideabehindthisstatementisthatifKael’sacquaintancesdidn’tvoteforNixon,thenneitherdidmostotherpeople.Thisassumptionisflawedbecauseitisbasedonasmallsample.

Sometimespeoplemakehastygeneralizationsbecausetheystronglyfavoronepointofviewoveranother.Atothertimes,ahastygeneralizationissimplytheresultofsloppythinking.For

example,itiseasierforastudenttosimplysaythataninstructorisanunusuallyhardgraderthantosurveytheinstructor’sclassestoseeifthisconclusioniswarranted(ortoconsiderotherreasonsforhisorherpoorperformanceinacourse).

Either/OrFallacy(FalseDilemma)Theeither/orfallacy(alsocalledafalsedilemma)occurswhenapersonsaysthattherearejusttwochoiceswhenthereareactuallymore.Inmanycases,thepersoncommittingthisfallacytriestoforceaconclusionbypresentingjusttwochoices,oneofwhichisclearlymoredesirablethantheother.(Parentsdothiswithyoungchildrenallthetime:“Eatyourcarrots,orgotobed.”)

Politiciansfrequentlyengageinthisfallacy.Forexample,accordingtosomepoliticians,youareeitherpro-lifeorpro-choice,pro-guncontroloranti-guncontrol,pro-stem-cellresearchoranti-stem-cellresearch.Manypeople,however,areactuallysomewhereinthemiddle,takingamuchmorenuancedapproachtocomplicatedissues.

Considerthefollowingstatement:

Ican’tbelieveyouvotedagainstthebilltobuildawallalongthesouthernborderoftheUnitedStates.Eitheryou’reforprotectingourborder,oryou’reagainstit.

Thisstatementisanexampleoftheeither/orfallacy.Thepersonwhovotedagainstthebillmightbeagainstthewallbutnotagainstallimmigrationrestrictions.Thepersonmightfavorlooserestrictionsforsomepeople(forexample,migrantworkers)andstrongrestrictionsforothers(forexample,drugsmugglers).Bylimitingtheoptionstojusttwo,thespeakeroversimplifiesthesituationandattemptstoforcethelistenertoacceptafallaciousargument.

Theeither/orfallacyoccurswhenawriterpresentsjusttwochoiceswhenthereareactuallymore.©Ferhat/Shutterstock.com

EquivocationThefallacyofequivocationoccurswhenakeytermhasonemeaninginonepartofanargumentandanothermeaninginanotherpart.(Whenatermisusedunequivocally,ithasthesamemeaningthroughouttheargument.)Considerthefollowingoldjoke:

Thesignsaid,“Fineforparkinghere,”sobecauseitwasfine,Iparkedthere.

Obviously,thewordfinehastwodifferentmeaningsinthissentence.Thefirsttimeitisused,itmeans“moneypaidasapenalty.”Thesecondtime,itmeans“good”or“satisfactory.”

Mostwordshavemorethanonemeaning,soitisimportantnottoconfusethevariousmeanings.Foranargumenttowork,akeytermhastohavethesamemeaningeverytimeitappearsintheargument.Ifthemeaningshiftsduringthecourseoftheargument,thentheargumentcannotbesound.

Considerthefollowingstatement:

Thisissupposedtobeafreecountry,butnothingworthhavingiseverfree.

Inthisstatement,themeaningofakeytermshifts.Thefirsttimethewordfreeisused,itmeans“notunderthecontrolofanother.”Thesecondtime,itmeans“withoutcharge.”

RedHerringThisfallacygetsitsnamefromthepracticeofdraggingasmokedfishacrossthetrailofafoxtomaskitsscentduringafoxhunt.Asaresult,thehoundslosethescentandarethrownoffthetrack.Theredherringfallacyoccurswhenapersonraisesanirrelevantsideissuetodivertattentionfromtherealissue.Usedskillfully,thisfallacycandistractanaudienceandchangethefocusofanargument.

Politicalcampaignsaregoodsourcesofexamplesoftheredherringfallacy.Considerthisexamplefromthe2016presidentialrace:

IknowthatDonaldTrumpsaysthatheisforthe“littleguy,”buthelivesinathree-storypenthouseinthemiddleofManhattan.HowcanwebelievethathispolicieswillhelptheaverageAmerican?

ThefocusofhisargumentshouldhavebeenonTrump’spolicies,notonthefactthathelivesinapenthouse.

Hereisanotherredherringfallacyfromthe2016politicalcampaign:

HillaryClintonwantsus tovote forher,butshewillbesixty-ninewhenshebecomespresident.Ithinkthatthisisaproblem.

Again,thefocusoftheseremarksshouldhavebeenonClinton’squalifications,notonherage.

SlipperySlopeTheslippery-slopefallacyoccurswhenapersonarguesthatonethingwillinevitablyresultfromanother.(Othernamesfortheslippery-slopefallacyarethefoot-in-the-doorfallacyand

thefloodgatesfallacy.)Boththesenamessuggestthatonceyoupermitcertainacts,youinevitablypermitadditionalactsthateventuallyleadtodisastrousconsequences.Typically,theslippery-slopefallacypresentsaseriesofincreasinglyunacceptableeventsthatleadtoaninevitable,unpleasantconclusion.(Usually,thereisnoevidencethatsuchasequencewillactuallyoccur.)

Weencounterexamplesoftheslippery-slopefallacyalmostdaily.Duringadebateonsame-sexmarriage,forexample,anopponentadvancedthislineofreasoning:

Ifweallowgaymarriage, then there isnothing tostoppolygamy.Andonceweallowthis,wherewillitstop?Willwehavetolegalizeincest—orevenbestiality?

Whetherornotyousupportsame-sexmarriage,youshouldrecognizethefallacyofthisslippery-slopereasoning.Bythelastsentenceofthepassageabove,theassertionshavebecomesooutrageousthattheyapproachparody.Peoplecancertainlydebatethisissue,butnotinsuchadishonestandhighlyemotionalway.

YouAlso(TuQuoque)Theyoualsofallacyassertsthatastatementisfalsebecauseitisinconsistentwithwhatthespeakerhassaidordone.Inotherwords,apersonisattackedfordoingwhatheorsheisarguingagainst.Parentsoftenencounterthisfallacywhentheyarguewiththeirteenagechildren.Byintroducinganirrelevantpoint—“Youdidittoo”—thechildrenattempttodistractparentsandputthemonthedefensive:

Howcanyoutellmenottosmokewhenyouusedtosmoke?

Don’tyellatmefordrinking.Ibetyouhadafewbeersbeforeyouweretwenty-one.

WhydoIhavetobehomebymidnight?Didn’tyoustayoutlatewhenyouweremyage?

Argumentssuchastheseareirrelevant.Peoplefailtofollowtheirownadvice,butthatdoesnotmeanthattheirpointshavenomerit.(Ofcourse,notfollowingtheirownadvicedoesunderminetheircredibility.)

Bewaretheslippery-slopefallacy©LonC.Diehl/Photoedit,Inc.

AppealtoDoubtfulAuthorityWritersofresearchpapersfrequentlyusetheideasofrecognizedauthoritiestostrengthentheirarguments.However,thesourcesofferedasevidenceneedtobebothrespectedandcredible.Theappealtodoubtfulauthorityoccurswhenpeopleusetheideasofnonexpertstosupporttheirarguments.

Noteveryonewhospeaksasanexpertisactuallyanauthorityonaparticularissue.Forexample,whenmoviestarsorrecordingartistsgivetheiropinionsaboutpolitics,climatechange,orforeignaffairs—thingstheymayknowlittleabout—theyarenotspeakingasexperts;therefore,theyhavenoauthority.(Theyareexperts,however,whentheydiscussthefilmormusicindustries.)Asimilarsituationoccurswiththepunditswhoappearontelevisionnewsshows.Someoftheseindividualshavesolidcredentialsinthefieldstheydiscuss,butothersofferopinionseventhoughtheyknowlittleaboutthesubjects.Unfortunately,manyviewersacceptthepronouncementsofthese“experts”uncriticallyandthinkitisacceptabletocitethem

tosupporttheirownarguments.Howdoyoudeterminewhetherapersonyoureadaboutorhearisreallyanauthority?First,

makesurethatthepersonactuallyhasexpertiseinthefieldheorsheisdiscussing.YoucandothisbycheckinghisorhercredentialsontheInternet.Second,makesurethatthepersonisnotbiased.Nooneisentirelyfreefrombias,butthebiasshouldnotbesoextremethatitunderminestheperson’sauthority.Finally,makesurethatyoucanconfirmwhattheso-calledexpertsaysorwrites.Checkoneortwopiecesofinformationinothersources,suchasabasicreferencetextorencyclopedia.Determineifothers—especiallyrecognizedexpertsinthefield—confirmthisinformation.Iftherearemajorpointsofdiscrepancy,digfurthertomakesureyouaredealingwithalegitimateauthority.

Comedian/actorAmySchumerboostshercredibilityontheissueofguncontrolbyappearingwithhercousin,SenatorCharlesSchumer.©AndrewBurton/GettyImages

MisuseofStatisticsThemisuseofstatisticsoccurswhendataaremisrepresented.Statisticscanbeusedpersuasivelyinanargument,butsometimestheyaredistorted—intentionallyorunintentionally—tomakeapoint.Forexample,aclassicadfortoothpasteclaimsthatfouroutoffivedentistsrecommendCresttoothpaste.Whattheadneglectstomentionisthenumberofdentistswhowerequestioned.Ifthecompanysurveyedseveralthousanddentists,thenthisstatisticwouldbemeaningful.Ifthecompanysurveyedonlyten,however,itwouldnotbe.

Misleadingstatisticscanbemuchsubtler(andmuchmorecomplicated)thantheexample

above.Forexample,oneyear,therewere16,653alcohol-relateddeathsintheUnitedStates.AccordingtotheNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration(NHTSA),12,892ofthese16,653alcohol-relateddeathsinvolvedatleastonedriverorpassengerwhowaslegallydrunk.Ofthe12,892deaths,7,326werethedriversthemselves,and1,594werelegallydrunkpedestrians.Theremaining3,972fatalitieswerenonintoxicateddrivers,passengers,ornonoccupants.These3,972fatalitiescallthetotalnumberintoquestionbecausetheNHTSAdoesnotindicatewhichdriverswereatfault.Inotherwords,ifasoberdriverranaredlightandkilledalegallydrunkdriver,theNHTSAclassifiedthisdeathasalcohol-related.Forthisreason,theoriginalnumberofalcohol-relateddeaths—16,653—issomewhatmisleading.(Thestatisticbecomesevenmorequestionablewhenyouconsiderthatapersonisautomaticallyclassifiedasintoxicatedifheorsherefusestotakeasobrietytest.)

Cartoonstock.com

PostHoc,ErgoPropterHoc(AfterThis,ThereforeBecauseofThis)Theposthocfallacyassertsthatbecausetwoeventsoccurcloselyintime,oneeventmustcausetheother.Professionalathletescommittheposthocfallacyallthetime.Forexample,onemajorleaguepitcherwearsthesameshirteverytimehehasanimportantgame.Becausehehaswon

severalbiggameswhilewearingthisshirt,hebelievesitbringshimluck.Manyeventsseemtofollowasequentialpatterneventhoughtheyactuallydonot.For

example,somepeoplerefusetogetaflushotbecausetheysaythatthelasttimetheygotone,theycamedownwiththeflu.Eventhoughthereisnoscientificbasisforthislink,manypeopleinsistthatitistrue.(Themoreprobableexplanationforthissituationisthatthefluvaccinationtakesatleasttwoweekstotakeeffect,soitispossibleforsomeonetobeinfectedbythefluvirusbeforethevaccinestartsworking.)

Anotherhealth-relatedissuealsoillustratestheposthocfallacy.Recently,theU.S.FoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)studiedseveralnaturalsupplementsthatclaimtocurethecommoncold.Becausethestudyshowedthattheseproductswerenoteffective,theFDAorderedthemanufacturerstostopmakingfalseclaims.Despitethisfact,however,manypeoplestillbuytheseproducts.Whenquestioned,theysaythemedicationsactuallywork.Again,theexplanationforthisphenomenonissimple.Mostcoldslastjustafewdays.AstheFDApointedoutinitsreport,peoplewhotookthemedicationswouldhavebegunfeelingbetterwithorwithoutthem.

NonSequitur(ItDoesNotFollow)Thenonsequiturfallacyoccurswhenaconclusiondoesnotfollowfromthepremises.Frequently,theconclusionissupportedbyweakorirrelevantevidence—orbynoevidenceatall.Considerthefollowingstatement:

Megandrivesanexpensivecar,soshemustbeearningalotofmoney.

Meganmightdriveanexpensivecar,butthisisnotevidencethatshehasahighsalary.Shecould,forexample,beleasingthecarorpayingitoffoverafive-yearperiod,oritcouldhavebeenagift.

Nonsequitursarecommoninpoliticalarguments.Considerthisstatement:

Gangs,drugs,andextremeviolenceplaguetoday’sprisons.Theonlywaytoaddressthisissueistoreleaseallnonviolentoffendersassoonaspossible.

Thisassessmentoftheprisonsystemmaybeaccurate,butitdoesn’tfollowthatbecauseofthissituation,allnonviolentoffendersshouldbereleasedimmediately.

Scientificargumentsalsocontainnonsequiturs.Considerthefollowingstatementthatwasmadeduringadebateonclimatechange:

Recently, the polar ice caps have thickened, and the temperature of the oceans hasstabilized.Obviously,wedon’tneedtodomoretoaddressclimatechange.

AnonsequiturfallacyNONSEQUITUR©2006WileyInk,Inc.Dist.ByUNIVERSALUCLICK.Reprintedwithpermission.Allrightsreserved.

Evenifyouacceptthefactsofthisargument,youneedtoseemoreevidencebeforeyoucanconcludethatnoactionagainstclimatechangeisnecessary.Forexample,thecoolingtrendcouldbetemporary,orotherareasoftheearthcouldstillbegrowingwarmer.

BandwagonFallacyThebandwagonfallacyoccurswhenyoutrytoconvincepeoplethatsomethingistruebecauseitiswidelyheldtobetrue.Itiseasytoseetheproblemwiththislineofreasoning.Hundredsofyearsago,mostpeoplebelievedthatthesunrevolvedaroundtheearthandthattheearthwasflat.Asweknow,thefactthatmanypeopleheldthesebeliefsdidnotmakethemtrue.

Theunderlyingassumptionofthebandwagonfallacyisthatthemorepeoplewhobelievesomething,themorelikelyitistobetrue.Withoutsupportingevidence,however,thisformofargumentcannotbevalid.Forexample,considerthefollowingstatementmadebyadriverwhowasstoppedbythepoliceforspeeding:

Officer,Ididn’tdoanythingwrong.Everyonearoundmewasgoingthesamespeed.

Asthepoliceofficerwasquicktopointout,thedriver’sargumentmissedthepoint:hewasdoingfifty-fivemilesanhourinathirty-five-mile-an-hourzone,andthefactthatotherdriverswerealsospeedingwasirrelevant.Ifthedriverhadbeenabletodemonstratethatthepoliceofficerwasmistaken—thathewasdrivingmoreslowlyorthatthespeedlimitwasactuallysixtymilesanhour—thenhisargumentwouldhavehadmerit.Inthiscase,thefactthatotherdriversweregoingthesamespeedwouldberelevantbecauseitwouldsupporthiscontention.

ThebandwagonfallacyCartoonstock.com

Sincemostpeoplewanttogoalongwiththecrowd,thebandwagonfallacycanbeveryeffective.Forthisreason,advertisersuseitallthetime.Forexample,abookpublisherwillsaythatabookhasbeenontheNewYorkTimesbestsellerlistfortenweeks,andapharmaceutical

companywillsaythatitsbrandofaspirinoutsellsotherbrandsfourtoone.Theseappealsareirrelevant,however,becausetheydon’taddressthecentralquestions:Isthebookactuallyworthreading?Isonebrandofaspirinreallybetterthanotherbrands?

EXERCISE5.10Determinewhichofthefollowingstatementsarelogicalargumentsandwhicharefallacies.Ifthestatementisnotlogical,identifythefallacythatbestapplies.

1. AlmostallthestudentsItalkedtosaidthattheydidn’tlikethesenator.I’msurehe’lllosetheelectiononTuesday.

2. Thiscarhasanoisyengine;therefore,itmustcreatealotofpollution.

3. Idon’tknowhowProfessorResnickcanbesuchahardgrader.He’salwayslateforclass.

4. AvoteforthebilltolimitgunsalesinthecityisavoteagainsttheSecondAmendment.

5. It’sonlyfairtopayyourfairshareoftaxes.

6. Ihadaninternshipatagovernmentagencylastsummer,andnoonethereworkedveryhard.Governmentworkersarelazy.

7. It’saclearprincipleoflawthatpeoplearenotallowedtoyell“Fire!”inacrowdedtheater.Bypermittingprotestorstoholdarallydowntown,JudgeCohenisallowingthemtodojustthat.

8. Ofcoursethispersonisguilty.Hewouldn’tbeinjailifheweren’tacriminal.

9. Schoolsarelikefamilies;therefore,teachers(likeparents)shouldbeallowedtodisciplinetheirkids.

10. Everybodyknowsthatstayingoutintheraincanmakeyousick.

11. Whenwehadadraftinthe1960s,thecrimeratewaslow.Weshouldbringbackthedraft.

12. I’mnotadoctor,butIplayoneonTV.IrecommendVicksFormula44coughsyrup.

13. Somepeoplearecomplainingaboutpublicschools,sotheremustbeaproblem.

14. Ifyouaren’tpartofthesolution,you’repartoftheproblem.

15. Allpeoplearemortal.Jamesisaperson.Therefore,Jamesismortal.

16. Idon’tknowwhyyougavemeanFforhandinginsomeoneelse’sessay.Didn’tyouevercopysomethingfromsomeoneelse?

17. First,thegovernmentstopsusfrombuyingassaultrifles.Then,itlimitsthenumberofhandgunswecanbuy.Whatwillcomenext?Soon,they’lltrytotakeawayallourguns.

18. Shakespearewastheworld’sgreatestplaywright;therefore,Macbethmustbeagreatplay.

19. Lastmonth,Iboughtanewcomputer.Yesterday,Iinstalledsomenewsoftware.Thismorning,mycomputerwouldn’tstartup.Thenewsoftwaremustbecausingtheproblem.

20. EllenDeGeneresisagainsttestingpharmaceuticalandcosmeticsproductsonanimals,andthat’sgoodenoughforme.

EXERCISE5.11Readthefollowingessay,andidentifyasmanylogicalfallaciesinitasyoucan.Makesureyouidentifyeachfallacybynameandareabletoexplaintheflawsinthewriter’sarguments.

ThisessayisfromBuchanan.org,whereitappearedonOctober31,1994.

PATRICKJ.BUCHANAN

IMMIGRATIONTIME-OUTProposition187“isanoutrage.Itisunconstitutional.Itisnativist.Itisracist.”

—AlHunt,CapitalGang,CNNThatoutburstbymycolumnistcolleague,aboutCalifornia’sProp.187—whichwouldcutoffsocialwelfarebenefitstoillegalaliens—suggeststhatthissavagequarrelisaboutmorethanjustmoney.Indeed,therootsofthisdisputeoverProp.187aregroundedinthewarringideasthatweAmericansholdaboutthedeepest,mostdivisiveissuesofourtime:ethnicity,nation,culture. 1

WhatdowewanttheAmericaoftheyears2000,2020,and2050tobelike?Dowehavetherighttoshapethecharacterofthecountryourgrandchildrenwilllivein?Oristhattobedecidedbywhoever,outsideAmerica,decidestocomehere? 2

By2050,weareinstructedbythechancelloroftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,ChangLin-Tin,“themajorityofAmericanswilltracetheirrootstoLatinAmerica,Africa,Asia,theMiddleEast,andPacificIslands.” 3

Now,anymanorwoman,ofanynationorancestrycancomehere—andbecomeagoodAmerican. 4

Weknowthatfromourhistory.Butbymyarithmetic,thechancellorissayingHispanics,Asians,andAfricanswillincreasetheirpresentnumberof65millionbyatleast100millionin60years,apopulationgrowthlargerthanallofMexicotoday. 5

WhatwillthatmeanforAmerica?Well,SouthTexasandSouthernCaliforniawillbealmostexclusivelyHispanic.Eachwillhavetensofmillionsofpeoplewhoselinguistic,historic,andculturalrootsareinMexico.LikeEasternUkraine,where10millionRussian-speaking“Ukrainians”nowlookimpatientlytoMoscow,notKiev,astheirculturalcapital,Americacouldsee,inadecade,demandsforQuebec-likestatusforSouthernCalifornia.Alreadythereisarumblingamongmilitantsforoutrightsecession.AseaofMexicanflagswasprominentinthatL.A.rallyagainstProp.187,andMexicanofficialsareopenlyurgingtheirkinsmeninCaliforniatovoteitdown. 6

Ifnocutoffisimposedonsocialbenefitsforthosewhobreachourborders,andbreakour

laws,themessagewillgoouttoadesperateworld:Americaiswideopen.Allyouneeddoisgetthere,andgetin. 7

Consequenceswillensue.Crowdingtogetherimmigrantandminoritypopulationsinourmajorcitiesmustbringgreaterconflict.Wesawthatinthe1992L.A.riot.BlacksandHispanicshavelatelycollidedinD.C.’sAdams-Morganneighborhood,supposedlythemosttolerantandprogressivesectionofWashington.Theissue:bilingualeducation.Unlike20yearsago,ethnicconflictistodayonalmosteveryfrontpage. 8

BeforeMr.Chang’svisionisrealized,theUnitedStateswillhaveatleasttwoofficiallanguages.Today’ssteadyoutmigrationof“Anglos”or“Euro-Americans,”aswhitesarenowcalled,fromSouthernFloridaandSouthernCalifornia,willcontinue.The50stateswillneedconstantredrawingofpoliticallinestoensureproportionalrepresentation.Alreadywehavecreatedthefirst“apartheiddistricts”inAmerica’sSouth. 9

EthnicmilitancyandsolidarityareontheriseintheUnitedStates;theoldinstitutionsofassimilationarenotdoingtheirworkastheyoncedid;theMeltingPotisinneedofrepair.Oncampusesweheardemandsforseparatedorms,eatingrooms,clubs,etc.,byblack,white,Hispanic,andAsianstudents.Ifthisiswherethecampusisheaded,whereareourcitiesgoing? 10

“Ethnicmilitancyandsolidarityareontherise.”

IfAmericaistosurviveas“onenation,onepeople,”weneedtocalla“time-out”onimmigration,toassimilatethetensofmillionswhohavelatelyarrived.Weneedtogettoknowoneanother,tolivetogether,tolearntogetherAmerica’slanguage,history,culture,andtraditionsoftolerance,tobecomeanewnationalfamily,beforeweaddahundredmillionmore.Andweneedsoontobringdownthecurtainonthisideaofhyphenated-Americanism. 11

Ifwelackthecouragetomakethedecisions—astowhatourcountrywilllooklikein2050—otherswillmakethosedecisionsforus,notallofwhomshareourloveoftheAmericathatseemstobefadingaway. 12

EXERCISE5.12Choose three of the fallacies that you identified in “Immigration Time- Out” forExercise5.11.Rewriteeachstatementintheformofalogicalargument.

Formorepractice,seetheLearningCurveonReasoningandLogicalFallaciesintheLaunchpadforPracticalArgument.

READINGANDWRITINGABOUTTHEISSUEHowFreeShouldFreeSpeechBe?

PrintedbypermissionoftheNormanRockwellFamilyAgency.Copyright1943theNormanRockwellFamilyEntities.

Gobacktopage123,andrereadtheAtIssueboxthatgivesbackgroundonhowfreefreespeechshouldbe.Asthefollowingsourcesillustrate,thisquestionhasanumberofpossibleanswers.

Asyoureadthissourcematerial,youwillbeaskedtoanswerquestionsandtocompletesomesimpleactivities.Thisworkwillhelpyouunderstandboththecontentandthestructureofthesources.Whenyouarefinished,youwillbereadytowriteanargument—eitherinductiveordeductive—thattakesanewpositiononhowfreefreespeechshouldactuallybe.

SOURCES

ThaneRosenbaum,“ShouldNeo-NazisBeAllowedFreeSpeech?,”p.165

SolStern,“TheUnfreeSpeechMovement,”p.168

AmericanAssociationofUniversityProfessors,“OnFreedomofExpressionandCampusSpeechCodes,”p.172

WendyKaminer,“ProgressiveIdeasHaveKilledFreeSpeechonCampus,”

p.175

JudithShulevitz,“InCollegeandHidingfromScaryIdeas,”p.178

EricPosner,“UniversitiesAreRighttoCrackDownonSpeechandBehavior,”p.183

ThisarticleoriginallyappearedonTheDailyBeast.comonJanuary1,2014.

THANEROSENBAUM

SHOULDNEO-NAZISBEALLOWEDFREESPEECH?Overthepastseveralweeks,freespeechhasgottencostlier—atleastinFranceandIsrael. 1

InFrance,DieudonneM’BalaM’Bala,ananti-Semiticstand-upcomicinfamousforpopularizingthequenelle,aninvertedNazisalute,wasbannedfromperformingintwocities.M’BalaM’Balahasbeenrepeatedlyfinedforhatespeech,andthiswasnotthefirsttimehisactwasperceivedasathreattopublicorder. 2

Meanwhile,Israel’sparliamentissoontopassabilloutlawingthewordNazifornon-educationalpurposes.Indeed,anysluragainstanotherthatinvokestheThirdReichcouldlandthespeakerinjailforsixmonthswithafineof$29,000.TheIsraelisareconcernedaboutboththeriseofanti-Semitismglobally,andthetrivializationoftheHolocaust—evenlocally. 3

ToAmericans,theseactionsinFranceandIsraelseempositivelyun-democratic.TheFirstAmendmentwouldneverprohibitthequenelle,regardlessofitssymbolicmeaning.AndanyloverofSeinfeldwouldregardbanningthe“SoupNazi”episodeasscandalouslyun-American.Afterall,in1977afederalcourtupheldtherightofneo-Nazistogoose-steprightthroughthetownofSkokie,Illinois,whichhadadisproportionatelylargenumberofHolocaustsurvivorsasresidents.Andmorerecently,theSupremeCourtupheldtherightofachurchgroupopposedtogaysservinginthemilitarytopicketthefuneralofadeadmarinewithsignsthatread,“GodHatesFags.” 4

WhilewhatishappeninginFranceandIsraeliswhollyforeigntoAmericans,perhapsit’stimetoconsiderwhethertheseandothercountriesmayberight.PerhapsAmerica’sfixationonfreespeechhasgonetoofar. 5

Actually,theUnitedStatesisanoutlieramongdemocraciesingrantingsuchgenerousfreespeechguarantees.SixEuropeancountries,alongwithBrazil,prohibittheuseofNazisymbolsandflags.ManymorecountrieshaveoutlawedHolocaustdenial.Indeed,evenencouragingracialdiscriminationinFranceisacrime.Inpluralisticnationslikethesewithclashingcultures

andhistoricaltragediesnotsharedbyall,mutualrespectandcivilityhelpskeepthepeaceandavoidsunnecessarymentaltrauma. 6

Yet,evenintheUnitedStates,freespeechisnotunlimited.Certainproscribedcategorieshavealwaysexisted—libel,slanderanddefamation,obscenity,“fightingwords,”andthe“incitementofimminentlawlessness”—wheretheFirstAmendmentdoesnotprotectthespeaker,wheretherighttospeakiscurtailedforreasonsofgeneralwelfareandpublicsafety.Thereisnofreedomtoshout“fire”inacrowdedtheater.Hatecrimestatutesexistinmanyjurisdictionswherebias-motivatedcrimesaregivenmoreseverepenalties.In2003,theSupremeCourtheldthatspeechintendedtointimidate,suchascrossburning,mightnotreceiveFirstAmendmentprotection. 7

Yet,theconfusionisthatinplacinglimitsonspeechweprivilegephysicaloveremotionalharm.Indeed,wehaveanentirelegalsystem,andanattitudetowardspeech,thattakesitscuefromanurseryrhyme:“Sticksandstonescanbreakmybonesbutnamescanneverhurtme.” 8

Allofusknow,however,anddespitewhatwetellourchildren,namesdo,indeed,hurt.AndrecentstudiesinuniversitiessuchasPurdue,UCLA,Michigan,Toronto,Arizona,Maryland,andMacquarieUniversityinNewSouthWalesshow,amongotherthings,throughbrainscansandcontrolledstudieswithparticipantswhoweresubjectedtobothphysicalandemotionalpain,thatemotionalharmisequalinintensitytothatexperiencedbythebody,andisevenmorelong-lastingandtraumatic.Physicalpainsubsides;emotionalpain,whenrecalled,isrelived. 9

Painhasasharedcircuitryinthehumanbrain,anditmakesnodistinctionbetweenbeinghitinthefaceandlosingface(orhavingabrokenheart)asaresultofbereavement,betrayal,socialexclusion,andgraveinsult.Emotionaldistresscan,infact,makethebodysick.Indeed,researchhasshownthatpainreliefmedicationcanworkequallywellforbothphysicalandemotionalinjury. 10

Weimposespeedlimitsondrivingandregulatefoodanddrugsbecauseweknowthatthecostsofnotdoingsocanleadtoaccidentsandharm.Whyshouldspeechbeexemptfrompublicwelfareconcernswhenitssocialcostscanbeevenmoreinjurious? 11

“Weimposespeedlimitsondrivingandregulatefoodanddrugsbecauseweknowthatthecostsofnotdoingsocanleadtoaccidentsandharm.”

Inthemarketplaceofideas,thereisadifferencebetweentryingtopersuadeandtryingtoinjure.Onecanobjecttogaysinthemilitarywithoutruiningtheonemomentafatherhastoburyhisson;neo-NaziscanlongfortheThirdReichwithoutre-traumatizingHitler’svictims;onecanopposeAffirmativeActionwithoutburningacrossonanAfrican-American’slawn. 12

Ofcourse,everythingisamatterofdegree.Juriesarefacedwithsimilarambiguitieswhenitcomestophysicalinjury.Nooneknowsforcertainwhethertheplaintiffwearinganeckbracecan’tactuallyruntheNewYorkMarathon.Wetoleratethefakeslipandfall,butwefeelabsolutelyhelplessinevaluatingwhetherwordsandgesturesintendedtoharmactuallydocause

harm.Jurorsareascapableofworkingthroughtheseuncertaintiesintheareaofemotionalharmsastheyareintherealmofphysicalinjury. 13

Freespeechshouldnotstandinthewayofcommondecency.Norightshouldbesofreelyandrecklesslyexercisedthatitbecomesanimpedimenttocivilsociety,makingitsothatothersaremadetofeellessfree,theirprivatespaceandpeaceinvaded,theirsensitivitiescruellytrampledupon. 14

ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. Rosenbaumwaitsuntiltheendofparagraph6tostatehisthesis.Why?Whatinformation

doesheincludeinparagraphs1–5?Howdoesthismaterialsetthestagefortherestoftheessay?

2. Rosenbaumdevelopshisargumentwithbothinductiveanddeductivereasoning.Wheredoesheuseeachstrategy?

3. WhatevidencedoesRosenbaumusetosupporthisthesis?Shouldhehaveincludedmoreevidence?Ifso,whatkind?

4. Inparagraph11,Rosenbaummakesacomparisonbetweenregulatingfreespeechandregulatingdrivingandfoodanddrugs.Howstrongisthisanalogy?Atwhatpoints(ifany)doesthiscomparisonbreakdown?

5. WheredoesRosenbaumaddressargumentsagainsthisposition?Doesherefutethesearguments?Whatotheropposingargumentscouldhehaveaddressed?

6. WhatpointdoesRosenbaumreinforceinhisconclusion?Whatotherpointscouldhehaveemphasized?

Thisop-edoriginallyranintheWallStreetJournalonSeptember24,2014.

SOLSTERN

THEUNFREESPEECHMOVEMENTThisfalltheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyiscelebratingthe50thanniversaryoftheFreeSpeechMovement,astudent-ledprotestagainstcampusrestrictionsonpoliticalactivitiesthatmadeheadlinesandinspiredimitatorsaroundthecountry.IplayedasmallpartintheFreeSpeechMovement,andsomeofthosereturningforthereunionwereoncemyfriends,butIwon’tbejoiningthem. 1

Thoughthemovementpromisedgreaterintellectualandpoliticalfreedomoncampus,theresulthasbeentheopposite.ThegreatironyisthatwhileBerkeleynowhonorsthememoryoftheFreeSpeechMovement,itexercisesmorethoughtcontroloverstudentsthanthehatedinstitutionthatweroseupagainsthalfacenturyago. 2

Weearly-1960sradicalsbelievedourselvesanointedasanew“tellitlikeitis”generation.

Wepromisedtotranscendthe“smellyoldorthodoxies”(inGeorgeOrwell’sphrase)ofColdWarliberalismandclass-based,authoritarianleftism.Leadingstudentsintotheuniversityadministrationbuildingforthefirstmassprotest,MarioSavio,theFreeSpeechMovement’sbrilliantleaderfromQueens,NewYork,famouslysaid:“There’satimewhentheoperationofthemachinebecomessoodious—makesyousosickatheart—thatyoucan’ttakepart….Andyou’vegottoindicatetothepeoplewhorunit,tothepeoplewhoownitthatunlessyou’refree,themachinewillbepreventedfromworkingatall.” 3

TheBerkeley“machine”nowpromotesFreeSpeechMovementkitsch.ThestepsinfrontofSproulHall,thecentraladministrationbuildingwheremorethan700studentswerearrestedonDec.2,1964,havebeenrenamedtheMarioSavioSteps.OneofthecampusdininghallsiscalledtheFreeSpeechMovementCafe,itswallscoveredwithphotographsandmementosoftheglorioussemesterofstruggle.TheuniversityrequiresfreshmentoreadanadmiringbiographyofSavio,whodiedin1996,writtenbyNewYorkUniversityprofessorandBerkeleygraduateRobertCohen. 4

Yetintellectualdiversityishardlyembraced.Everyundergraduateundergoesaformofindoctrinationwitharequiredcourseonthe“theoreticaloranalyticalissuesrelevanttounderstandingrace,culture,andethnicityinAmericansociety,”administeredbytheuniversity’sDivisionofEquityandInclusion. 5

HowdidthisOrwellianinversionoccur?IthappenedinpartbecausetheFreeSpeechMovement’sfightforfreespeechwasalwaysacharade.Thestrugglewasreallyaboutusingthecampusasabaseforradicalpolitics.Iwasa27-year-oldNewLeftgraduatestudentatthetime.Saviowasa22-year-oldsophomore.HelikedtocomparetheFreeSpeechMovementtothecivil-rightsstruggle—conflatingtheessentiallyliberalBerkeleyadministrationwiththeBullConnorsoftheracistSouth. 6

DuringonedemonstrationSaviosuggestedthatthecampuscopswhohadarrestedaprotestingstudentwere“poorpolicemen”whoonly“haveajobtodo.”Anotherstudentthenshoutedout:“JustlikeEichmann.”“Yeah.Verygood.It’svery,youknow,likeAdolfEichmann,”Savioreplied.“Hehadajobtodo.Hefitintothemachinery.” 7

Irealizedyearslaterthatthismomentmayhavebeenthebeginningofthe1960sradicals’perversionofordinarypoliticallanguage,likethespelling“Amerika”orseeinghopeandprogressinThirdWorlddictatorships. 8

Beforethat1964–65academicyear,mostofusradicalstudentscouldnothaveimaginedacampusrebellion.Whyrevoltagainstaninstitutionthatuntilthenofferedsuchapleasantsanctuary?ButthenBerkeleyadministratorsmadeanincrediblystupiddecisiontoestablishnewrulesregardingpoliticalactivitiesoncampus.StudentclubswerenolongerallowedtosetuptablesinfrontoftheBancroftAvenuecampusentrancetosolicitfundsandrecruitnewmembers. 9

Theclubshadusedthis40-footstripofsidewalkforyearsontheassumptionthatitwasthepropertyoftheCityofBerkeleyandthusconstitutionallyprotectedagainstspeechrestrictions.Buttheuniversityclaimedownershiptojustifythenewrules.Whensomestudentsrefusedtocomply,theadministrationcompoundeditsblunderbyresortingtothecampuspolice.Notsurprisingly,thestudentspushedback,usingcivil-disobediencetacticslearnedfightingforcivilrightsintheSouth. 10

TheFreeSpeechMovementwasbornonOct.1,1964,whenpolicetriedtoarrestarecent

Berkeleygraduate,JackWeinberg,whowasbackoncampusafterasummerasacivil-rightsworkerinMississippi.HehadsetupatableontheBancroftstripfortheBerkeleychapteroftheCongressofRacialEquality(CORE).Dozensofstudentsspontaneouslysatdownaroundthepolicecar,preventingitfromleavingthecampus.A32-hourstandoffensued,withhundredsofstudentscampedaroundthecar. 11

MarioSavio,alsobackfromMississippi,tookoffhisshoes,climbedontotheroofofthepolicecar,andlaunchedintoanimpromptuspeechexplainingwhythestudentshadtoresisttheimmoralnewrules.Thusbeganmonthsofsporadicprotests,theoccupationofSproulHallonDec.2(endedbymassarrests),nationalmediaattention,andBerkeley’seventualcapitulation. 12

Thatshouldhaveendedthematter.Saviosoonleftthepoliticalarena,sayingthathehadnointerestinbecomingapermanentstudentleader.Butothershadmasteredthenewworldofpoliticaltheater,understoodtheweaknessofAmericanliberalism,andsoonturnedtheirireontheVietnamWar. 13

“Butothershadmasteredthenewworldofpoliticaltheater,understoodtheweaknessofAmericanliberalism,andsoonturnedtheirireontheVietnamWar.”

MarioSavioatavictoryrallyontheUniversityofCaliforniacampusinBerkeley(December9,1964)APPhoto.

TheradicalmovementthattheFreeSpeechMovementspawnedeventuallydescendedinto

violenceandmindlessanti-Americanism.Themovementwanedinthe1970sasthewarwounddown—butbythenprotestershadbeguntheirinfiltrationofuniversityfacultiesandadministrationstheyhadoncedecried.“Tenuredradicals,”inNewCriterioneditorRogerKimball’sphrase,nowdominatemostprofessionalorganizationsinthehumanitiesandsocialstudies.Unlikeouroldliberalprofessors,whodealtrespectfullywiththeideasadvancedbymygenerationofNewLeftstudents,today’sradicalprofessorsinsistonideologicalconformityanddon’ttakekindlytodissentbyconservativestudents.Visitsbyspeakerswhomightnottoetheliberalline—recentlyincludingformerSecretaryofStateCondoleezzaRiceandIslamismcriticAyaanHirsiAli—sparkprotestsandletter-writingcampaignsbystudentsintandemwiththeirprofessorsuntilthespeakerwithdrawsortheinvitationiscanceled. 14

OnOct.1atBerkeley,bycontrast,oneofthehonoredspeakersattheFreeSpeechMovementanniversaryrallyonSproulPlazawillbeBettinaAptheker,whoisnowafeminist-studiesprofessorattheUniversityofCaliforniaatSantaCruz. 15

WritingintheBerkeleyalumnimagazineabouttheanniversary,Ms.ApthekernotedthattheFirstAmendmentwas“writtenbywhite,propertiedmeninthe18thcentury,whoneverlikelyimaginedthatitmightapplytowomen,and/orpeopleofcolor,and/orallthosewhowerenotpropertied,andeven,perhaps,notcitizens,and/orundocumentedimmigrants….Inotherwords,freedomofspeechisaConstitutionalguarantee,butwhogetstoexerciseitwithoutthechillingrestraintsofcensuredependsverymuchonone’slocationinthepoliticalandsocialcartography.We[FreeSpeechMovement]veteransweretooyoungandinexperiencedin1964toknowthis,butwedonow,andwespeakwithanewawareness,anewconsciousness,andanewurgencythatthewisdomofatruefreedomisinexorablytiedtowhoexercisespowerandforwhatends.”Readitandweep—fortheFreeSpeechMovementanniversary,fortheidealofanintellectuallyopenuniversity,andforAmerica. 16

ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. Inyourownwords,summarizeStern’sthesis.Wheredoeshestateit?

2. Atwhatpoint(orpoints)intheessaydoesSternappealtoethos?Howeffectiveisthisappeal?

3. Inparagraph4,Sternsays,“TheBerkeley‘machine’nowpromotesFreeSpeechMovementkitsch.”First,lookupthemeaningofkitsch.Then,explainwhatSternmeansbythisstatement.

4. Sternsupportshispointswithexamplesdrawnfromhisownexperience.Isthisenough?Whatotherkindsofevidencecouldhehaveused?

5. Inparagraph5,SternsaysthateveryundergraduateatBerkeley“undergoesaformofindoctrination.”Whatdoeshemean?DoesSternmakeavalidpoint,orishebeggingthequestion?

6. WhydoesSterndiscussBettinaApthekerinparagraphs15–16?Couldhebeaccusedofmakinganadhominemattack?Whyorwhynot?

ThiscodecameoutofaJune1992meetingoftheAmericanAssociationofUniversityProfessors.

AMERICANASSOCIATIONOFUNIVERSITYPROFESSORS

ONFREEDOMOFEXPRESSIONANDCAMPUSSPEECHCODESFreedomofthoughtandexpressionisessentialtoanyinstitutionofhigherlearning.Universitiesandcollegesexistnotonlytotransmitexistingknowledge.Equally,theyinterpret,explore,andexpandthatknowledgebytestingtheoldandproposingthenew. 1

Thismissionguideslearningoutsidetheclassroomquiteasmuchasinclass,andofteninspiresvigorousdebateonthosesocial,economic,andpoliticalissuesthatarousethestrongestpassions.Intheprocess,viewswillbeexpressedthatmayseemtomanywrong,distasteful,oroffensive.Suchisthenatureoffreedomtosiftandwinnowideas. 2

Onacampusthatisfreeandopen,noideacanbebannedorforbidden.Noviewpointormessagemaybedeemedsohatefulordisturbingthatitmaynotbeexpressed. 3

“Onacampusthatisfreeandopen,noideacanbebannedorforbidden.”

Universitiesandcollegesarealsocommunities,oftenofaresidentialcharacter.Mostcampuseshaverecentlysoughttobecomemorediverse,andmorereflectiveofthelargercommunity,byattractingstudents,faculty,andstafffromgroupsthatwerehistoricallyexcludedorunderrepresented.Suchgainsastheyhavemadearerecent,modest,andtenuous.Thecampusclimatecanprofoundlyaffectaninstitution’scontinueddiversity.Hostilityorintolerancetopersonswhodifferfromthemajority(especiallyifseeminglycondonedbytheinstitution)mayunderminetheconfidenceofnewmembersofthecommunity.Civilityisalwaysfragileandcaneasilybedestroyed. 4

Inresponsetoverbalassaultsanduseofhatefullanguagesomecampuseshavefeltitnecessarytoforbidtheexpressionofracist,sexist,homophobic,orethnicallydemeaningspeech,alongwithconductorbehaviorthatharasses.Severalreasonsareofferedinsupportofbanningsuchexpression.Individualsandgroupsthathavebeenvictimsofsuchexpressionfeelanunderstandableoutrage.Theyclaimthattheacademicprogressofminorityandmajorityalikemaysufferiffears,tensions,andconflictsspawnedbyslursandinsultscreateanenvironmentinimicaltolearning.Thesearguments,groundedintheneedtofosteranatmosphererespectfulofandwelcometoallpersons,strikeadeeplyresponsivechordintheacademy.But,whilewecanacknowledgeboththeweightoftheseconcernsandthethoughtfulnessofthosepersuadedoftheneedforregulation,rulesthatbanorpunishspeechbaseduponitscontentcannotbejustified.Aninstitutionofhigherlearningfailstofulfillitsmissionifitassertsthepowertoproscribeideas—andracialorethnicslurs,sexistepithets,orhomophobicinsultsalmostalwaysexpressideas,howeverrepugnant.Indeed,byproscribing

anyideas,auniversitysetsanexamplethatprofoundlydisservesitsacademicmission.Somemayseektodefendadistinctionbetweentheregulationofthecontentofspeechandtheregulationofthemanner(orstyle)ofspeech.Wefindthisdistinctionuntenableinpracticebecauseoffensivestyleoropprobriousphrasesmayinfacthavebeenchosenpreciselyfortheirexpressivepower.AstheUnitedStatesSupremeCourthassaidinthecourseofrejectingcriminalsanctionsforoffensivewords:Wordsareoftenchosenasmuchfortheiremotiveastheircognitiveforce.WecannotsanctiontheviewthattheConstitution,whilesolicitousofthecognitivecontentofindividualspeech,haslittleornoregardforthatemotivefunctionwhich,practicallyspeaking,mayoftenbethemoreimportantelementoftheoverallmessagesoughttobecommunicated.Thelinebetweensubstanceandstyleisthustoouncertaintosustainthepressurethatwillinevitablybebroughttobearupondisciplinaryrulesthatattempttoregulatespeech.Proponentsofspeechcodessometimesreplythatthevalueofemotivelanguageofthistypeisofsuchaloworderthat,onbalance,suppressionisjustifiedbytheharmsufferedbythosewhoaredirectlyaffected,andbythegeneraldamagedonetothelearningenvironment.Yetacollegeoruniversitysetsaperilouscourseifitseekstodifferentiatebetweenhigh-valueandlow-valuespeech,ortochoosewhichgroupsaretobeprotectedbycurbingthespeechofothers.Aspeechcodeunavoidablyimpliesaninstitutionalcompetencetodistinguishpermissibleexpressionofhatefulthoughtfromwhatisproscribedasthoughtlesshate.Institutionswouldalsohavetojustifyshieldingsome,butnotother,targetsofoffensivelanguage—nottopoliticalpreference,toreligiousbutnottophilosophicalcreed,orperhapseventosomebutnottootherreligiousaffiliations.Startingdownthispathcreatesanevengreaterriskthatgroupsnotoriginallyprotectedmaylaterdemandsimilarsolicitude—demandstheinstitutionthatbegantheprocessofbanningsomespeechisillequippedtoresist. 5

Distinctionsofthistypeareneitherpracticablenorprincipled;theirveryfragilityunderscoreswhyinstitutionsdevotedtofreedomofthoughtandexpressionoughtnotadoptaninstitutionalizedcoercionofsilence. 6

Moreover,banningspeechoftenavoidsconsiderationofmeansmorecompatiblewiththemissionofanacademicinstitutionbywhichtodealwithincivility,intolerance,offensivespeech,andharassingbehavior: 7

1. Institutionsshouldadoptandinvokearangeofmeasuresthatpenalizeconductandbehavior,ratherthanspeech,suchasrulesagainstdefacingproperty,physicalintimidationorharassment,ordisruptionofcampusactivities.Allmembersofthecampuscommunityshouldbemadeawareofsuchrules,andadministratorsshouldbereadytousetheminpreferencetospeech-directedsanctions.

2. Collegesanduniversitiesshouldstressthemeanstheyusebest—toeducate—includingthedevelopmentofcoursesandothercurricularandco-curricularexperiencesdesignedtoincreasestudentunderstandingandtodeteroffensiveorintolerantspeechorconduct.Suchinstitutionsshould,ofcourse,befree(indeedencouraged)tocondemnmanifestationsofintoleranceanddiscrimination,whetherphysicalorverbal.

3. Thegoverningboardandtheadministrationhaveaspecialdutynotonlytosetanoutstandingexampleoftolerance,butalsotochallengeboldlyandcondemnimmediatelyseriousbreachesofcivility.

4. Membersofthefaculty,too,haveamajorrole;theirvoicesmaybecriticalincondemningintolerance,andtheiractionsmaysetexamplesforunderstanding,makingcleartotheirstudentsthatcivilityandtolerancearehallmarksofeducatedmenandwomen.

5. Studentpersonneladministratorshaveinsomewaysthemostdemandingroleofall,forhatespeechoccursmostoftenindormitories,locker-rooms,cafeterias,andstudentcenters.Personswhoguidethispartofcampuslifeshouldsethighstandardsoftheirownfortoleranceandshouldmakeunmistakablycleartheharmthatuncivilorintolerantspeechinflicts.

Tosomepersonswhosupportspeechcodes,measureslikethese—relyingastheydoonsuasionratherthansanctions—mayseeminadequate.Butfreedomofexpressionrequirestolerationof“ideaswehate,”asJusticeHolmesputit.Theunderlyingprincipledoesnotchangebecausethedemandistosilenceahatefulspeaker,orbecauseitcomesfromwithintheacademy.Freespeechisnotsimplyanaspectoftheeducationalenterprisetobeweighedagainstotherdesirableends.Itistheverypreconditionoftheacademicenterpriseitself. 8

ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. Thewritersofthisstatementrelyprimarilyondeductivereasoning.Constructasyllogism

thatincludestheselection’smajorpremise,minorpremise,andconclusion.

2. Atwhataudienceisthisstatementaimed—students,instructors,administrators,orthegeneralpublic?Howdoyouknow?

3. Whatproblemdothewritersaddress?Wheredotheypresenttheirsolution?

4. Inparagraph5,thewritersdiscussthemajorargumentsagainsttheirposition.Whydotheyaddressopposingargumentssoearlyintheselection?Howeffectivelydothewritersrefutethesearguments?

5. Paragraph7isfollowedbyanumberedlist.Whatinformationisinthislist?Whydidthewritersdecidetosetitoffinthisway?

6. Whatdothewritersmeanwhentheysaythatfreespeech“istheverypreconditionoftheacademicexerciseitself”(para.8)?

ThisessayfirstappearedintheWashingtonPostonFebruary20,2015.

WENDYKAMINER

PROGRESSIVEIDEASHAVEKILLEDFREESPEECHONCAMPUSIsanacademicdiscussionoffreespeechpotentiallytraumatic?ArecentpanelforSmith

Collegealumnaeaimedat“challengingtheideologicalechochamber”elicitedthisominous“trigger/contentwarning”whenatranscriptappearedinthecampusnewspaper:“Racism/racialslurs,ableistslurs,antisemiticlanguage,anti-Muslim/Islamophobiclanguage,anti-immigrantlanguage,sexist/misogynisticslurs,referencestorace-basedviolence,referencestoantisemiticviolence.” 1

Nooneonthispanel,inwhichIparticipated,traffickedinslurs.Sowhatpromptedthewarning? 2

SmithPresidentKathleenMcCartneyhadjoked,“We’rejustwildandcrazy,aren’twe?”Inthetranscript,“crazy”wasreplacedbythenotation:“[ableistslur].” 3

OneofmyfellowpanelistsmentionedthattheStateDepartmenthadforatimebannedthewords“jihad,”“Islamist,”and“caliphate”—whichthetranscriptflaggedas“anti-Muslim/Islamophobiclanguage.” 4

IdescribedthecaseofaBrandeisprofessordisciplinedforsaying“wetback”whileexplainingitsuseasapejorative.Thewordwasreplacedinthetranscriptby“[anti-Latin@/anti-immigrantslur].”DiscussingtheteachingofHuckleberryFinn,Iquestionedtheuseofeuphemismssuchas“then-word”and,indoingso,utteredthatforbiddenword.IdescribedwhatIthoughtwastheobviousdifferencebetweenquotingawordinthecontextofdiscussinglanguage,literature,orprejudiceandhurlingitasanepithet. 5

Twoofthepanelistschallengedme.Theaudienceof300to400peoplelistenedtoourspirited,friendlydebate—anddidn’tappearangryorshocked.Butbackoncampus,Iwasquicklybrandedaracist,andIwaschargedintheHuffingtonPostwithcommitting“anexplicitactofracialviolence.”McCartneysubsequentlyapologizedthat“somestudentsandfacultywerehurt”andmadeto“feelunsafe”bymyremarks. 6

Unsafe?Thesedays,whenstudentstalkaboutthreatstotheirsafetyanddemandaccessto“safespaces,”they’reoftentalkingaboutthethreatofun-welcomespeechanddemandingprotectionfromtheemotionaldisturbancessparkedbyunsettlingideas.It’snotjustrapethatsomewomenoncampusfear:It’sdiscussionsofrape.AtBrownUniversity,ascheduleddebatebetweentwofeministsaboutrapeculturewascriticizedfor,astheBrownDailyHeraldputit,undermining“theUniversity’smissiontocreateasafeandsupportiveenvironmentforsurvivors.”Inaschool-widee-mail,BrownPresidentChristinaPaxonemphasizedherbeliefintheexistenceofrapecultureandinvitedstudentstoanalternativelecture,tobegivenatthesametimeasthedebate.AndtheDailyHeraldreportedthatstudentswhofearedbeing“attackedbytheviewpoints”offeredatthedebatecouldinstead“findasafespace”among“sexualassaultpeereducators,womenpeercounselorsandstaff”duringthesametimeslot.Presumablytheyallsharedthesameviewpointsandcouldbetrustednotto“attack”anyonewiththeirideas. 7

Howdidwegethere?Howdidaverbaldefenseoffreespeechbecometantamounttoahatecrimeandoffensivewordsbecometheequivalentofphysicalassaults? 8

Youcancredit—orblame—progressivesforthisenthusiasticembraceofcensorship.Itreflects,inpart,theinfluenceofthreepopularmovementsdatingbackdecades:thefeministanti-porncrusades,thepop-psychologyrecoverymovement,andtheemergenceofmulticulturalismoncollegecampuses. 9

“Howdidaverbaldefenseoffreespeechbecometantamounttoahatecrimeandoffensivewordsbecometheequivalentofphysicalassaults?”

Inthe1980s,lawprofessorCatharineMacKinnonandwriterAndreaDworkinshowedtheway,popularizingaviewoffreespeechasabarriertoequality.Thesetwoimpassionedfeministsframedpornography—itsproduction,distribution,andconsumption—asanassaultonwomen.Theydevisedanoveldefinitionofpornographyasaviolationofwomen’scivilrights,andchampionedamodelanti-pornordinancethatwouldauthorizecivilactionsbyanywoman“aggrieved”bypornography.In1984,thecityofIndianapolisadoptedthemeasure,definingpornographyasa“discriminatorypractice,”butitwasquicklystruckdowninfederalcourtasunconstitutional.“Indianapolisjustifiestheordinanceonthegroundthatpornographyaffectsthoughts,”thecourtnoted.“Thisisthoughtcontrol.” 10

SoMacKinnnonandDworkinlostthatbattle,buttheirsuccessorsarewinningthewar.Theirviewofallegedlyoffensiveordemeaningspeechasacivilrightsviolation,andtheirconflationofwordsandactions,havehelpedshapecampusspeechandharassmentcodesandnurturedprogressivehostilitytowardfreespeech. 11

Therecoverymovement,whichflourishedinthelate’80sandearly’90s,adoptedasimilarlydireviewofunwelcomespeech.Wordswound,anti-pornfeministsandrecoveringco-dependentsagreed.Self-appointedrecoveryexperts,suchasthebest-sellingauthorJohnBradshaw,promotedthebeliefthatmostofusarevictimsofabuse,inoneformoranother.Theybroadenedthedefinitionofabusetoincludearangeofcommon,normalchildhoodexperiences,includingbeingchastisedorignoredbyyourparentsonoccasion.Fromthisperspective,weareallfragileandeasilydamagedbypresumptivelyhurtfulspeech,andcensorshiplookslikeamoralnecessity. 12

Theseideaswerereadilyabsorbedoncollegecampusesembarkingonacommendabledrivefordiversity.Multiculturalistssoughttoprotecthistoricallydisadvantagedstudentsfromspeechconsideredracist,sexist,homophobicorotherwisediscriminatory.Likeabuse,oppressionwasdefinedbroadly.Irememberthefirsttime,intheearly’90s,thatIheardaHarvardstudentdescribeherselfasoppressed,asawomanofcolor.Shehadn’tbeensystematicallydeprivedoffundamentalrightsandliberties.Afterall,she’dbeenadmittedtoHarvard.Butshehadbeenoffendedandunsettledbycertainattitudesandremarks.Didshehavegoodreasontotakeoffense?Thatwasanirrelevantquestion.Populartherapeuticculturedefinedverbal“assaults”andotherformsofdiscriminationbythesubjective,emotionalresponsesofself-proclaimedvictims. 13

Thisrelianceonsubjectivity,intheinterestofequality,isarecipeforarbitrary,discriminatoryenforcementpractices,withfar-reachingeffectsonindividualliberty.Thetendencytotakesubjectiveallegationsofvictimizationatfacevalue—instrumentalincontemporarycensorshipcampaigns—alsoleadstothepresumptionofguiltanddisregardfordueprocessintheprogressiveapproachtoallegedsexualassaultsoncampus. 14

Thisisadangerouslymisguidedapproachtojustice.“Feelingrealities”belonginatherapist’soffice.Incorporatedintolawsandregulations,theyleadtothesoftauthoritarianismthatnowgovernsmanyAmericancampuses.Insteadofadvancingequality,it’steachingfuture

generationsofleadersthe“virtues”ofautocracy. 15

ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. ShouldKaminerhavegivenmorebackgroundinformationabouttheproblemshe

discusses?Whatadditionalinformationcouldshehaveprovided?

2. Kaminerdevotesthefirstsixparagraphsofheressaytodescribingapaneldiscussion.Whydoyouthinkshebeginsheressayinthisway?Howdoesthisdiscussionpreparereadersfortherestoftheessay?

3. Inparagraph8,Kamineraskstwoquestions.Whatisthefunctionofthesequestions?

4. AccordingtoKaminer,whatare“feelingrealities”(para.15)?Inwhatsenseare“feelingrealities”harmful?

5. DoesKaminereverestablishthatthesituationshediscussesiswidespreadenoughtobeaproblem?Couldshebeaccusedofsettingupastrawman?

6. WhatdoesKaminerwanttoaccomplish?Isherpurposetoconvincereadersofsomething?Tomovethemtoaction?Whatisyourreactiontoheressay?

ThisopinionpiecewasoriginallypublishedonMarch21,2015,intheNewYorkTimes.

JUDITHSHULEVITZ

INCOLLEGEANDHIDINGFROMSCARYIDEASKatherineByron,asenioratBrownUniversityandamemberofitsSexualAssaultTask

Force,considersitherdutytomakeBrownasafeplaceforrapevictims,freefromanythingthatmightpromptmemoriesoftrauma. 1

SowhensheheardlastfallthatastudentgrouphadorganizedadebateaboutcampussexualassaultbetweenJessicaValenti,thefounderoffeministing.com,andWendyMcElroy,alibertarian,andthatMs.McElroywaslikelytocriticizetheterm“rapeculture,”Ms.Byronwasalarmed.“Bringinginaspeakerlikethatcouldservetoinvalidatepeople’sexperiences,”shetoldme.Itcouldbe“damaging.” 2

Ms.Byronandsomefellowtaskforcememberssecuredameetingwithadministrators.Notlongafter,Brown’spresident,ChristinaH.Paxson,announcedthattheuniversitywouldholdasimultaneous,competingtalktoprovide“researchandfacts”about“theroleofcultureinsexualassault.”Meanwhile,studentvolunteersputuppostersadvertisingthata“safespace”wouldbeavailableforanyonewhofoundthedebatetooupsetting. 3

Thesafespace,Ms.Byronexplained,wasintendedtogivepeoplewhomightfindcomments“troubling”or“triggering,”aplacetorecuperate.Theroomwasequippedwithcookies,coloringbooks,bubbles,Play-Doh,calmingmusic,pillows,blankets,andavideooffrolickingpuppies,aswellasstudentsandstaffmemberstrainedtodealwithtrauma.Emma

Hall,ajunior,rapesurvivor,and“sexualassaultpeereducator”whohelpedsetuptheroomandworkedinitduringthedebate,estimatesthatacoupleofdozenpeopleusedit.Atonepointshewenttothelecturehall—itwaspacked—butafterawhile,shehadtoreturntothesafespace.“Iwasfeelingbombardedbyalotofviewpointsthatreallygoagainstmydearlyandcloselyheldbeliefs,”Ms.Hallsaid. 4

Safespacesareanexpressionoftheconviction,increasinglyprevalentamongcollegestudents,thattheirschoolsshouldkeepthemfrombeing“bombarded”bydiscomfitingordistressingviewpoints.Thinkofthesafespaceasthelive-actionversionofthebetter-knowntriggerwarning,anoticeputontopofasyllabusoranassignedreadingtoalertstudentstothepresenceofpotentiallydisturbingmaterial. 5

Somepeopletracesafespacesbacktothefeministconsciousness-raisinggroupsofthe1960sand1970s,otherstothegayandlesbianmovementoftheearly1990s.Inmostcases,safespacesareinnocuousgatheringsoflike-mindedpeoplewhoagreetorefrainfromridicule,criticism,orwhattheytermmicroaggressions—subtledisplaysofracialorsexualbias—sothateveryonecanrelaxenoughtoexplorethenuancesof,say,afluidgenderidentity.Aslongasallpartiesconsenttosuchrestrictions,theselittleislandsofself-restraintseemlikeaperfectlyfineidea. 6

Butthenotionthatticklishconversationsmustbescrubbedcleanofcontroversyhasawayofleakingoutandspreading.Onceyoudesignatesomespacesassafe,youimplythattherestareunsafe.Itfollowsthattheyshouldbemadesafer. 7

“Aslongasallpartiesconsenttosuchrestrictions,theselittleislandsofself-restraintseemlikeaperfectlyfineidea.”

ThislogicclearlyinformedacampaignundertakenthisfallbyaColumbiaUniversitystudentgroupcalledEveryoneAlliedAgainstHomophobiathatconsistedofslippingaflierunderthedoorofeverydormroomoncampus.Theheadlineoftheflierstated,“Iwantthisspacetobeasaferspace.”Thetextbelowinstructedstudentstotapetheflierstotheirwindows.Thegroup’svicepresidentthenhadtheflierpublishedintheColumbiaDailySpectator,thestudentnewspaper,alongwithaneditorialassertingthat“makingspacessaferisaboutlearninghowtobekindtoeachother.” 8

AjuniornamedAdamShapirodecidedhedidn’twanthisroomtobeasaferspace.Heprinteduphisownfliercallingitadangerousspaceandhadthat,too,publishedintheColumbiaDailySpectator.“Kindnessalonewon’tallowustogainmoreinsightintotruth,”hewrote.Inaninterview,Mr.Shapirosaid,“Ifthepointofasafespaceistherapyforpeoplewhofeelvictimizedbytraumatization,thatsoundslikeagreatmission.”Butasafe-spacementalityhasbeguninfiltratingclassrooms,hesaid,makingbothprofessorsandstudentsloathtosayanythingthatmighthurtsomeone’sfeelings.“Idon’tseehowyoucanhaveatherapeuticspacethat’salsoanintellectualspace,”hesaid. 9

I’moldenoughtorememberatimewhencollegestudentsobjectedtoprovidingaplatformtocertainspeakersbecausetheyweredeemedpoliticallyunacceptable.Nowstudentsworrywhetheractsofspeechorpiecesofwritingmayputtheminemotionalperil.Twoweeksago,

studentsatNorthwesternUniversitymarchedtoprotestanarticlebyLauraKipnis,aprofessorintheuniversity’sSchoolofCommunication.ProfessorKipnishadcriticized—O.K.,ridiculed—whatshecalledthesexualparanoiapervadingcampuslife. 10

Theprotesterscarriedmattressesanddemandedthattheadministrationcondemntheessay.OnestudentcomplainedthatProfessorKipniswas“erasingtheverytraumaticexperience”ofvictimswhospokeout.Anorganizerofthedemonstrationsaid,“weneedtobesettingasidespacestotalk”about“victimblaming.”LastWednesday,Northwestern’spresident,MortonO.Schapiro,wroteanop-edarticleintheWallStreetJournalaffirminghiscommitmenttoacademicfreedom.Butplentyofothersatuniversitiesarewillingtodignifystudents’fears,citingthreatstotheirstabilityasreasonstocanceldebates,disinvitecommencementspeakers,andapologizeforso-calledmistakes. 11

AtOxfordUniversity’sChristChurchcollegeinNovember,thecollegecensors(a“censor”beingmoreorlesstheOxfordequivalentofanundergraduatedean)canceledadebateonabortionaftercampusfeministsthreatenedtodisruptitbecausebothwould-bedebatersweremen.“I’mrelievedthecensorshavemadethisdecision,”saidthetreasurerofChristChurch’sstudentunion,whohadpressedforthecancellation.“Itclearlymakesthemostsenseforthesafety—bothphysicalandmental—ofthestudentswholiveandworkinChristChurch.” 12

Ayearandahalfago,aHampshireCollegestudentgroupdisinvitedanAfrofunkbandthathadbeenattackedonsocialmediaforhavingtoomanywhitemusicians;thevitriolicdiscussionhadmadestudentsfeel“unsafe.” 13

Lastfall,thepresidentofSmithCollege,KathleenMcCartney,apologizedforcausingstudentsandfacultytobe“hurt”whenshefailedtoobjecttoaracialepithetutteredbyafellowpanelmemberatanalumnaeeventinNewYork.Theoffenderwasthefree-speechadvocateWendyKaminer,whohadbeenarguingagainsttheuseoftheeuphemism“then-word”whenteachingAmericanhistoryorTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn.Intheuproarthatfollowed,theStudentGovernmentAssociationwrotealetterdeclaringthat“ifSmithisunsafeforonestudent,itisunsafeforallstudents.” 14

“It’samazingtomethattheycan’tdistinguishbetweenracistspeechandspeechaboutracistspeech,betweenracismanddiscussionsofracism,”Ms.Kaminersaidinanemail. 15

Theconfusionistelling,though.Itshowsthatwhilekeepingcollege-leveldiscussions“safe”mayfeelgoodtothehypersensitive,it’sbadforthemandforeveryoneelse.Peopleoughttogotocollegetosharpentheirwitsandbroadentheirfieldofvision.Shieldthemfromunfamiliarideas,andthey’llneverlearnthedisciplineofseeingtheworldasotherpeopleseeit.They’llbeunpreparedforthesocialandintellectualheadwindsthatwillhitthemassoonastheystepoffthecampuseswhoseclimatestheyhavesocarefullycontrolled.Whatwilltheydowhentheyhearopinionsthey’velearnedtoshrinkfrom?Iftheywanttochangetheworld,howwilltheylearntopersuadepeopletojointhem? 16

Onlyafewofthestudentswantstrongeranti-hate-speechcodes.Mostlytheyaskforthingslikemandatorytrainingsessionsandstricterenforcementofexistingrules.Still,it’sdisconcertingtoseestudentsclamorforakindofintrusivesupervisionthatwouldhaveoutragedstudentsafewgenerationsago.Butthosewerehardiersouls.Nowstudents’needsareanticipatedbyasmallarmyofserviceprofessionals—mentalhealthcounselors,student-lifedeans,andthelike.Thisnewbureaucracymaybeexacerbatingstudents’“self-infantilization,”

asJudithShapiro,theformerpresidentofBarnardCollege,suggestedinanessayforInsideHigherEd. 17

Butwhyarestudentssoeagertoself-infantilize?Theirparentsshouldprobablysharetheblame.EricPosner,aprofessorattheUniversityofChicagoLawSchool,wroteonSlatelastmonththatalthoughuniversitiescossetstudentsmorethantheyusedto,that’swhattheyhavetodo,becausetoday’sundergraduatesaremorepuerilethantheirpredecessors.“Perhapsoverprogrammedchildrenengineeredtothespecificationsofcollegeadmissionsofficesnolongerexperiencetherisksandchallengesthatbreedmaturity,”hewrote.But“ifcollegestudentsarechildren,thentheyshouldbeprotectedlikechildren.” 18

“Theirparentsshouldprobablysharetheblame.”

Anotherreasonstudentsresorttothequasi-medicalizedterminologyoftraumaisthatitforcesadministratorstorespond.Universitiesareinadoublebind.They’rerequiredbytwocivil-rightsstatutes,TitleVIIandTitleIX,toensurethattheircampusesdon’tcreatea“hostileenvironment”forwomenandothergroupssubjecttoharassment.However,universitiesarenotsupposedtogotoofarinsuppressingfreespeech,either.Ifauniversitycancelsatalkorpunishesaprofessorandalawsuitensues,historysuggeststhattheuniversitywilllose.Butifofficialsdon’tcensureordon’tpreventspeechthatmayinflictpsychologicaldamageonamemberofaprotectedclass,theyriskfosteringahostileenvironmentandpromptinganinvestigation.Asaresult,studentswhosaytheyfeelunsafearemorelikelytobeheardthanstudentswhodemandcensorshiponothergrounds. 19

Thetheorythatvulnerablestudentsshouldbeguaranteedpsychologicalsecurityhasrootsinabodyoflegalthoughtelaboratedinthe1980sand1990sandstillreadtoday.Feministandanti-racistlegalscholarsarguedthattheFirstAmendmentshouldnotsafeguardlanguagethatinflictedemotionalinjurythroughracistorsexiststigmatization.Onescholar,MariJ.Matsuda,wasparticularlyinsistentthatcollegestudentsnotbesubjectedto“theviolenceoftheword”becausemanyofthem“areawayfromhomeforthefirsttimeandatavulnerablestageofpsychologicaldevelopment.”Ifthey’retargetedandtheuniversitydoesnothingtohelpthem,theywillbe“lefttotheirownresourcesincopingwiththedamagewrought.”Thatmighthave,shewrote,“lifelongrepercussions.” 20

Perhaps.ButMs.Matsudadoesn’tseemtohaveconsideredthepossibilitythatinsulatingstudentscouldalsomakethem,well,insular.Afewweeksago,ZinebElRhazoui,ajournalistatCharlieHebdo,spokeattheUniversityofChicago,protectedbythesecurityguardsshehastraveledwithsincesupportersoftheIslamicStateissueddeaththreatsagainsther.Duringthequestion-and-answerperiod,aMuslimstudentstooduptoobjecttothenewspaper’sapparentdisrespectforMuslimsandtoexpressherdislikeofthephrase“IamCharlie.” 21

Ms.ElRhazouireplied,somewhatirritably,“BeingCharlieHebdomeanstodiebecauseofadrawing,”andnoteveryonehasthegutstodothat(althoughshedidn’tusethewordguts).Shelivesunderconstantthreat,Ms.ElRhazouisaid.Thestudentansweredthatshefeltthreatened,too. 22

Afewdayslater,aguesteditorialistinthestudentnewspapertookMs.ElRhazouitotask.

Shehadfailedtoensure“thatothersfeltsafeenoughtoexpressdissentingopinions.”Ms.ElRhazoui’s“relativepositionofpower,”thewritercontinued,hadgrantedhera“freepasstomakecondescendingattacksonamemberoftheuniversity.”Inalettertotheeditor,thepresidentandthevicepresidentoftheUniversityofChicagoFrenchClub,whichhadsponsoredthetalk,shotback,saying,“ElRhazouiisanimmigrant,awoman,Arab,ahuman-rightsactivistwhohasknownexile,andajournalistlivinginveryrealfearofdeath.Shewasinvitedtospeakpreciselybecauseherrighttodosois,quiteliterally,underthreat.” 23

You’dbehard-pressedtoavoidtheconclusionthatthestudentandherdefenderhadburrowedsodeepinsidetheircocoons,weresoovercomebytheirownfragility,thattheycouldn’tseethatitwasMs.ElRhazouiwhowasinneedofasaferspace. 24

ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. Whatare“safespaces”?AccordingtoShulevitz,whatistheproblemofdesignating“some

spacesassafe”(para.7)?

2. Inparagraph9,ShulevitzquotesAdamShapiro,astudent,whosays,“Idon’tseehowyoucanhaveatherapeuticspacethat’salsoanintellectualspace.”WhatdoesShapiromean?Doyouagreewithhim?

3. DoesShulevitzuseinductiveordeductivereasoningtomakehercase?Whydoyouthinkthatshechosethisstrategy?

4. WheredoesShulevitzdiscussargumentsagainstherposition?Doesshepresenttheseargumentsfairly?Explain.

5. DoesShulevitzappealmainlytoethos,pathos,orlogos?

6. Inparagraph17,Shulevitzsays,“Onlyafewofthestudentswantstrongeranti-hate-speechcodes.”Doesthisadmissionundercutherargument?Whyorwhynot?

ThisessaywaspostedonSlate.comonFebruary12,2015.

ERICPOSNER

UNIVERSITIESARERIGHTTOCRACKDOWNONSPEECHANDBEHAVIORLately,amoralpanicaboutspeechandsexualactivityinuniversitieshasreachedacrescendo.Universitieshavestrengthenedrulesprohibitingoffensivespeechtypicallytargetedatracial,ethnic,andsexualminorities;takenituponthemselvestoissue“triggerwarnings”tostudentswhencoursesoffercontentthatmightupsetthem;bannedsexualactsthatfallshortofrapeundercriminallawbutareontheborderlineofcoercion;andlimiteddueprocessprotectionsofstudentsaccusedofviolatingtheserules. 1

Mostliberalscelebratethesedevelopments,yetwithacertainuneasiness.Fewofthemwant

toapplytheseprotectionstosocietyatlarge.Conservativesandlibertariansareupinarms.Theyseetheserulesasanassaultonfreespeechandindividualliberty.Theythinkuniversitiesaretreatingstudentslikechildren.Andtheyareright.Buttheyhavealsonotconsideredthatthejustificationforthesepoliciesmayliehiddeninplainsight:thatstudentsarechildren.Notintermsofage,butintermsofmaturity.Evenincollege,theymustbeprotectedlikechildrenwhilebeingpreparedtobeadults. 2

Thereisapopular,romanticnotionthatstudentsreceivetheiruniversityeducationthroughfreeandopendebateabouttheissuesoftheday.Nothingcouldbefartherfromthetruth.Studentswhoentercollegeknowhardlyanythingatall—that’swhytheyneedaneducation.Classroomteachersknowstudentswon’tlearnanythingiftheyblabonabouttheiropinions.Teachersaredictatorswhocarefullycontrolwhatstudentssaytooneanother.It’snotjustthatsincereexpressionsofopinionaboutsame-sexmarriageorcampaignfinancereformareoutofplaceinchemistryandmathclass.Theyareoutofplaceeveninphilosophyandpoliticsclasses,wherethegoalistoeducatestudents(usuallyaboutacademictextsandtheories),nottolistentothemspoutoff.Andwhileprofessorssometimesbelievethereispedagogicalvalueinallowingstudentstoexpresstheirpoliticalopinionsinthecontextofsometext,professors(oratleast,goodprofessors)carefullymanipulatetheirstudentssothatthediscussionservespedagogicalends. 3

That’swhythecontretempsaboutarecentincidentatMarquetteUniversityisfarlessalarmingthanlibertariansthink.AninexperiencedinstructorwasteachingaclassonthephilosophyofJohnRawls,andastudentintheclassarguedthatsame-sexmarriagewasconsistentwithRawls’philosophy.Whenanotherstudenttoldtheteacheroutsideofclassthathedisagreed,theteacherrespondedthatshewouldnotpermitastudenttoopposesame-sexmarriageinclassbecausethatmightoffendgaystudents. 4

WhileIbelievethattheteachermishandledthestudent’scomplaint,shewasjustifiedindismissingit.ThepurposeoftheclasswastoteachRawls’theoryofjustice,nottodebatethemeritsofsame-sexmarriage.Thefactthatastudentinjectedsame-sexmarriageintothediscussiondoesnotmeanthattheclasswasrequiredtodiscussit.TheprofessormightreasonablyhavebelievedthatthestudentswouldgainabetterunderstandingofRawls’theoryiftheythoughtabouthowitappliedtoissueslessdivisiveandhencelesslikelytodistractstudentsfromtheacademicmeritsofthetheory. 5

Teachingistricky.Everyoneunderstandsthataclassisafailureifstudentsrefusetolearnbecausetheyfeelbulliedorintimidated,orifideologicalargumentsbreakoutthathavenothingtodowithunderstandinganidea.Itistheresponsibilityoftheprofessortoconducttheclassinsuchawaythatmaximallearningoccurs,notmaximalspeech.That’swhynoteacherwouldpermitstudentstolaunchintoanti-SemiticdiatribesinaclassabouttheHolocaust,howeversincerelythespeakermightthinkthatJewswereresponsiblefortheHolocaustortheHolocaustdidnottakeplace.AndevenateacherlessscrupulousaboutavoidingoffensetogaypeoplewoulddrawalineifastudentintheRawlsclasswantedtoarguethatJimCroworlegalizationofpedophiliaisentailedbytheprinciplesofjustice.Whileadvocatesoffreedomofspeechliketoclaimthatfalsehoodsgetsqueezedoutinthe“marketplaceofideas,”inclassroomstheyjustreceiveanF. 6

“Itistheresponsibilityoftheprofessortoconducttheclassinsuchawaythatmaximallearningoccurs,notmaximalspeech.”

Mostofthedebateaboutspeechcodes,whichfrequentlyprohibitstudentsfrommakingoffensivecommentstooneanother,concernsspeechoutsideofclass.Twopointsshouldbemade.First,studentswhoareunhappywiththecodesandvaluesoncampuscantaketheirviewstoforumsoutsideofcampus—tothetownsquare,forexample.Thecampusisanextensionoftheclassroom,andsowhiletherestrictionsintheclassroomareenforcedlessvigorously,theunderlyingpedagogicalobjectiveofavoidingintimidationremainsintact. 7

Second,andmoreimportant—atleastforlibertarianpartisansofthefreemarket—theuniversitiesaresimplycateringtodemandinthemarketplaceforeducation.Whilecriticssometimesgivetheimpressionthatleftyprofessorsandcluelessadministratorsoriginatedthespeechandsexcodes,thetruthisthatuniversitiesadoptedthembecausethat’swhatmoststudentswant.Ifstudentswanttolearnbiologyandarthistoryinanenvironmentwheretheyneedn’tworryaboutbeingoffendedorraped,whyshouldn’tthey?Aslongasuniversitiesarefreetochoosewhateverrulestheywant,studentswithdifferentviewscansortthemselvesintouniversitieswithdifferentrules.Indeed,studentswhowantthegreatestspeechprotectionscanattendpublicuniversities,which(unlikeprivateuniversities)aregovernedbytheFirstAmendment.Libertariansmightreflectontheironythattheprivatemarket,inwhichtheynormallyputfaith,reflectsapreferenceamongstudentsforspeechrestrictions. 8

Andthisbringsmetothemostimportantoverlookedfactaboutspeechandsexcodedebates.Societyseemstobemovingtheageofmajorityfrom18to21or22.Weareincreasinglytreatingcollege-agestudentsasquasi-childrenwhoneedprotectionfromsomeoflife’sharshrealitieswhiletheycompletethelarvalstageoftheirlives.Manycriticsofthesecodesdiscernthistransformationbutmisinterpretit.Theycomplainthatuniversitiesaretreatingadultslikechildren.Theproblemisthatuniversitieshavebeentreatingchildrenlikeadults. 9

Alotofthecontroversiesaboutcampuslifebecomeclearerfromthisperspective.Youngstersdodumbthings.Theysufferfromlackofimpulsecontrol.Theyfailtosaynotoasexualencountertheydonotwant,ortheymisinterpretanoasyes,orinpublicdebatetheyunderminetheirownargumentsbybeingneedlesslyoffensive.Scientificresearchconfirmsthatbraindevelopmentcontinueswellintoaperson’s20s.Highschoolsareaccustomedtodealingwiththecognitivelimitationsoftheircharges.Theyseetheirmissionasadvancingtheautonomyofstudentsratherthanassumingthatitisalreadyinplace.Theysocializeaswellaseducatechildrentoactcivillybypunishingthemiftheydon’t.Universitieshavegraduallyrealizedthattheymusttakethesameapproachtocollegestudents. 10

Onenaturallywonderswhythishasbecomenecessary.Perhapsoverprogrammedchildrenengineeredtothespecificationsofcollegeadmissionsofficesnolongerexperiencetherisksandchallengesthatbreedmaturity.Ormaybeinourever-moretechnologicallyadvancedsociety,theresponsibilitiesofadulthoodmustbedelayeduntilthecompletionofamoreextendedperiodofeducation. 11

Yetcollegestudentshavenotalwaysenjoyedsomuchautonomy.Themodernfreedomsofcollegestudentsdatebackonlytothe1960s,whenawaveofanti-authoritarianism,inspiredbytheVietnamWarandthecivilrightsmovement,sweptawaystrictcampuscodesinaneraofsingle-sexdorms.Themodernspeechandsexcodeshavesurfacedasthosewatersrecedebacktosea.Whatismostinterestingisthatthisreactioncomesnotfromparentsandadministrators,butfromstudentsthemselves,who,apparentlyrecognizingthattheirparentsandschoolshavenotfullypreparedthemforindependence,wantuniversitiestoresumetheirtraditionalroleinlocoparentis. 12

Ifallthisistrue,thenmaybewecandeclareatruceintheculturewarsovereducation.Ifcollegestudentsarechildren,thentheyshouldbeprotectedlikechildren.Libertariansshouldtakeheartthatthemarketinprivateeducationoffersstudentsadiverseassortmentofideologicalculturesinwhichtheycanbeindoctrinated.Conservativesshouldrejoicethatmoralinstructionandsocialcontrolhavebeenreintroducedtotheuniversitiesaftera40-yeardrought.Bothgroupsshouldbepleasedthatstudentsarekeptfromharm’sway,andkeptfromdoingharm,untiltheyarereadytoaccepttheresponsibilitiesofadults. 13

ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. Thisarticlebeginswithaseriesofexamples.Aretheseexamplesself-evident,ordoes

Posnerneedtosupplymorematerial—forexample,sourceinformationorevidencethatthepolicieshementionsarewidespread?

2. Inparagraph2,Posnersays,“Mostliberalscelebratethesedevelopments.”Hethengoesontotalkaboutconservativesandlibertarians.Whatlogicalfallacydoesheseemtobecommitting?

3. Inparagraph3,Posnersays,“Teachersaredictatorswhocarefullycontrolwhatstudentssaytooneanother.”Doyouagree?Howcouldyourefutethisstatement?

4. WhatisPosner’spurposeinwritingthisessay?Doeshewanttopresentinformation,changepeople’sideas,ormovereaderstoaction?Doyouthinkthatheachieveshispurpose?Explain.

5. Posnermakesanumberofunsupportedgeneralstatementsinthisessay.Forexample,inparagraph8,hesaysthatuniversitiesadoptedspeechandsexcodes“becausethat’swhatmoststudentswant.”Identifytwoorthreeofthesegeneralstatements,anddeterminewhatkindsofevidencePosnerwouldneedtosupportthem.

6. Inhisconclusion,Posnerspeculatesonwhyuniversitiesshouldassumetheresponsibilityofsocializingstudents.Doyouagree?Whyorwhynot?

TEMPLATEFORWRITINGADEDUCTIVEARGUMENTWriteaone-paragraphdeductiveargumentinwhichyouargueagainstyourschoolimposingspeechcodes.Followthetemplatebelow,fillingintheblankstocreateyourargument.

OneofthebasicprinciplesoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentistheconstitutionalguaranteeoffreedomofspeech.Withfewexceptions,allAmericans_____________________________._________________________________________________________________________________.Incollege.Forexample,________________________________________________________________________.Byhavingtherighttoexpressthemselvesfreely,____________________________________.Therefore,___________________________________________________________________________________.Noteveryoneagreeswiththisview,however.Somepeoplearguethat____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.Thisargumentmissesthepoint.Whenauniversitylimitsthespeechofsomestudentsbecauseothersmaybeupsetbytheircomments,________________________________.Forthisreason,collegesshould____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

TEMPLATEFORWRITINGANINDUCTIVEARGUMENTWriteaone-paragraphinductiveargumentinwhichyouargueinfavorofyourschoolimposingspeechcodes.Followthetemplatebelow,fillingintheblankstocreateyourargument.

Thenumberofstudentsdemandingprotectionfromdistastefulideasisgrowingyearly.Somestudentscomplainthat____________________________________________________________________.Thesestudentswant_________________________________.Anumberofstudieshaveshownthatso-calledsafespacesandtriggerwarningsgoalongwaytowardcalmingstudents’fearsandcreatingahospitablelearningenvironment.Forexample,somestudents______________________________________.Asaresult,___________________________.Thebestwayforcollegestodealwiththisproblemisto_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.Freespeechadvocates,however,arguethat___________________________.Althoughthismaybetrue,___________________________.Forthisreason,itwouldmakesenseto_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

EXERCISE5.13Interviewseveralofyourclassmatesaswellasoneortwoofyourinstructorsabouthowfreefreespeechshouldbe.Then,editthedeductiveandinductiveargumentsyouwroteusingthetemplatesabovesothattheyincludesomeofthesecomments.

EXERCISE5.14Writeanessayinwhichyoutakeapositiononthequestion,“ShouldUniversitiesBeAbletoPlaceLimitsonFreeSpeech?”Makesurethatyouressayisorganizedprimarilyaseitheradeductiveargumentoraninductiveargument.Usethereadingsonpages165–186assourcematerial,andbesuretodocumentallinformationthatyougetfromthesesources.(SeeChapter10forinformationondocumentingsources.)

EXERCISE5.15Reviewthelogicalfallaciesdiscussedonpages147–160.Then,rereadtheessayyouwroteforExercise5.14,andchecktoseeifitcontainsanyfallacies.Underlineanyfallaciesyoufind,andidentifythembyname.Then,rewriteeachstatementsoitexpressesalogicalargument.Finally,reviseyourdrafttoeliminateanyfallaciesyoufound.

EXERCISE5.16

ReviewthefourpillarsofargumentdiscussedinChapter1.Doesyouressayincludeallfourelementsofaneffectiveargument?Addanythingthatismissing.Then,labelthekeyelementsofyouressay.

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