Chapter Six: Chapter Six: Egoism, Self-Interest, Egoism, Self-Interest,

and Altruismand Altruism

Nestlé's infant formula, the notorious example of Nestlé's infant formula, the notorious example of selfishness in the business worldselfishness in the business world

Two Main Types of EgoismTwo Main Types of Egoism

Psychological EgoismPsychological Egoism::

We always We always dodo that act that we perceive that act that we perceive to be in our own best self-interest.to be in our own best self-interest.Ethical EgoismEthical Egoism: :

Everyone Everyone oughtought always to do those acts that always to do those acts that will serve his or her own best self-interest.will serve his or her own best self-interest.

The Argument from The Argument from Self-SatisfactionSelf-SatisfactionS. Everyone is an egoist because everyone S. Everyone is an egoist because everyone always tries to do what will bring him or her always tries to do what will bring him or her satisfactionsatisfactionS1. For any act A, everyone does A S1. For any act A, everyone does A in in orderorder to obtain satisfaction to obtain satisfaction

The Argument from The Argument from Self-SatisfactionSelf-SatisfactionS2. We all do the act that we most want to S2. We all do the act that we most want to do, and as a do, and as a consequenceconsequence, we are satisfied , we are satisfied by the success of carrying out the act.by the success of carrying out the act.S3. We always try to do what we most S3. We always try to do what we most want to do and, as a consequence of success want to do and, as a consequence of success in carrying out the act, experience in carrying out the act, experience satisfaction.satisfaction.

The Paradox of HedonismThe Paradox of Hedonism

The best way to get happiness is to forget The best way to get happiness is to forget about it.about it.Worthy goals will indirectly bring about Worthy goals will indirectly bring about happiness.happiness.Focus on the goals, not the happiness.Focus on the goals, not the happiness.Seems to suggest psychological egoism has Seems to suggest psychological egoism has severe problemssevere problems

The Argument from Self-The Argument from Self-DeceptionDeceptionAlter interpretation of S to include Alter interpretation of S to include subconscious motivations. subconscious motivations. Thesis now states that sometimes we are Thesis now states that sometimes we are self-deceived about our motivation, but self-deceived about our motivation, but whenever we overcome self-deception and whenever we overcome self-deception and really look deep into our motivational really look deep into our motivational schemes, we find an essential selfishness.schemes, we find an essential selfishness.

Ethical EgoismEthical Egoism

Everyone ought to always do those acts Everyone ought to always do those acts that will best serve his or her own best self-that will best serve his or her own best self-interest.interest.Morally right actions are those that Morally right actions are those that maximize the best interest of oneself.maximize the best interest of oneself.Does not maintain that every person ought Does not maintain that every person ought to serve the best interests of to serve the best interests of meme specifically. specifically.

The Argument from Strict The Argument from Strict Psychological EgoismPsychological Egoism

1. We all always seek to maximize our own 1. We all always seek to maximize our own self-interest.self-interest.

2. If one cannot do an act, one has no 2. If one cannot do an act, one has no obligation to do that act.obligation to do that act.

3. Altruistic acts involve putting other 3. Altruistic acts involve putting other people's interests ahead of our own.people's interests ahead of our own.

The Argument from Strict The Argument from Strict Psychological EgoismPsychological Egoism

4. But, altruism contradicts psychological 4. But, altruism contradicts psychological egoism and so is impossibleegoism and so is impossible

5. Therefore, altruistic acts are never morally 5. Therefore, altruistic acts are never morally obligatory.obligatory.

Hobbes's Argument from Hobbes's Argument from Predominant Psychological Predominant Psychological EgoismEgoismSelfishness forces us into chaos, and Selfishness forces us into chaos, and

selfishness forces us to solve the problem selfishness forces us to solve the problem through mutually agreed-on moral codes.through mutually agreed-on moral codes.

Problem:Problem: assumes we cannot do any better assumes we cannot do any better than be egoists, so we should be as than be egoists, so we should be as strategic about our egoism as possible.strategic about our egoism as possible.

Smith's Economic ArgumentSmith's Economic Argument

Individual self-interest in a competitive Individual self-interest in a competitive marketplace produces a state of optimal marketplace produces a state of optimal goodness for society at largegoodness for society at largeThe result of an “invisible hand”The result of an “invisible hand”A two-tier systemA two-tier system–Tier 2 Tier 2 General goal:General goal: social utility social utility–Tier 1 Tier 1 Individual motivation:Individual motivation: egoisticegoistic

Rand's Argument for the Virtue Rand's Argument for the Virtue of Selfishnessof Selfishness

Selfishness is a virtueSelfishness is a virtueAltruism a vice, a totally destructive idea Altruism a vice, a totally destructive idea that leads to the undermining of individual that leads to the undermining of individual worthworthEvery individual has a duty to seek his or Every individual has a duty to seek his or her own good first, regardless of how it her own good first, regardless of how it affects othersaffects others

Arguments Against Arguments Against Ethical EgoismEthical Egoism

1.1.The Inconsistent OutcomesThe Inconsistent Outcomes

ArgumentArgument::

Ethical Egoism cannot be true because Ethical Egoism cannot be true because it fails to meet a necessaryit fails to meet a necessary

condition of morality – being a guide to condition of morality – being a guide to actionaction

Arguments Against Arguments Against Ethical EgoismEthical Egoism

1.1.The Publicity ArgumentThe Publicity Argument::

An egoist cannot publicly advertise his An egoist cannot publicly advertise his egoistic project without harming that very egoistic project without harming that very project.project.

Arguments Against Arguments Against Ethical EgoismEthical Egoism

1.1.The Paradox of Ethical EgoismThe Paradox of Ethical Egoism::

To reach the goal of egoism one must To reach the goal of egoism one must give up egoism and become (to some extent) give up egoism and become (to some extent) an altruist, the very antithesis of egoism.an altruist, the very antithesis of egoism.

Arguments Against Arguments Against Ethical EgoismEthical Egoism

1.1.The Argument from Counterintuitive The Argument from Counterintuitive ConsequencesConsequences::

It is an absolute moral system that not It is an absolute moral system that not only permits egoistic behavior, but also only permits egoistic behavior, but also demands it.demands it.

Arguments Against Arguments Against Ethical EgoismEthical Egoism

5.5. The Problem of Future Generations The Problem of Future Generations::

Egoism seems unable to deal with the Egoism seems unable to deal with the problem of obligations to posterity.problem of obligations to posterity.

The egoist gains nothing by preserving The egoist gains nothing by preserving natural resources for future generations natural resources for future generations that do not yet exist and thus can give no that do not yet exist and thus can give no benefit to the egoist.benefit to the egoist.

Evolution and AltruismEvolution and Altruism

SociobiologySociobiology theorizes that social theorizes that social structures and behavioral patterns, including structures and behavioral patterns, including morality, have a biological base, explained morality, have a biological base, explained by evolutionary theory.by evolutionary theory.There is a difference between pure altruism There is a difference between pure altruism and reciprocal altruism but we have a duty to and reciprocal altruism but we have a duty to both kinds of altruism.both kinds of altruism.