Chapter 6 :Emile Durkheim

1858-1917

Chapter Outline I. Introduction II. Social Facts A. Material and Nonmaterial Social Facts B. Types of Nonmaterial Social Facts 1. Morality 2. Collective Conscience 3. Collective Representations 4. Social Currents C. Group Mind III. The Division of Labor in Society A. Biographical Sketch B. Mechanical and Organic Solidarity 1. Table: The Four Dimensions of the Collective

Conscience C. Dynamic Density D. Repressive and Restitutive Law

E. Normal and Pathological 1. Anomic Division of Labor 2. Forced Division of Labor F. Justice IV. Suicide A. The Four Types of Suicide 1. Egoistic Suicide 2. Altruistic Suicide 3. Anomic Suicide 4. Fatalistic Suicide 5. Table: The Four Types of Suicide B. Suicide Rates and Social Reform V.Criticism A. Functionalism and Positivism B. Other Criticisms VI. Summary

Learning Objectives1.explain what Durkheim meant by a social fact,

particularly the difference between material and immaterial social facts;

2.discuss The Division of Labor (differentiate between mechanical and organic solidarity; explain the role of dynamic density in the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity, and the different types of laws that characterize each type of solidarity);

3.explain the methodological importance of Durkheim's Suicide (his use of an historical, comparative method to study suicide rates);

4.explain the four types of suicide in relation to integration and regulation.

5.provide a critique of Durkheim's sociological theory.

a Biographical sketch Born in France on April 15, 1857 Son of a rabbi(犹太教士 ) Was a Catholic for a short period of time Became an agnostic(不可知论者 ) in 1893The Division of Labor in Society was

published; in 1895 The Rules of Sociological Method was

published; in 1897 Suicide: A Study in Sociology was published. in 1898 , he founded the journal L'annee

scoiologique; In 1902 he was summoned to the famous French

university the Sorbonne, in 1906 he was named professor of the science of

education, a title that was changed in 1913 to professor of the science of education and sociology.

in 1912, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, was published.

Durkheim died on November 15,1917

I. IntroductionThere are two main themes in the work of Emile

Durkheim. The first is of the the priority social over the

individual. Durkheim recognized that society exists beyond ourselves. Society is more than the individuals who compose it: society has a life of its own that stretches beyond our personal experiences)

the second is the idea that society can be studied scientifically.

For Durkheim, society is made up of "social facts" that exceed out intuitive understanding and must be investigated through observations and measurements. These ideas are so central to sociology that Durkheim is often seen as the "father" of sociology

II. Social Facts

According to Durkheim, social facts are the subject matter of sociology. Social facts are “sui generis” (meaning of its own kind; unique) and must be studied distinct from biological and psychological phenomenon

Social facts are not only external to individuals, but they are "endowed with coercive power, by ...which they impose themselves upon him, independent of his individual will.".

The character of social facts

A.External to the individual(social facts can be studied empirically)

B.Coercive of the individualC.General throughoutD.Independent(can be explained only by

other social facts.)

The types of social factsDurkeim differentiated between two broad types

of social facts:A.material social facts Material social facts, such as styles of

architecture, forms of technology, and legal codes, are the easier to understand because they are directly observable.

B.nonmaterial facts.More importantly, these material social facts often

express a far larger and more powerful realm of moral forces that are at least equally external to individuals and coercive over them. These are nonmaterial social facts. Such as styles of morality,collective conscience,collective representations,and social currents.

1.morality

morality was at the foundation of sociology as a discipline. Durkheim's view of morality had two aspects.

First, Durkheim was convinced that morality is a social fact, in other words, that morality can be empirically studied, is external to the individual, is coercive of the individual, and is explained by other social facts.

Second, Durkheim was a sociologist of morality because his studies were driven by his concern about the moral "health" of modern society.

2. Collective Conscience (later

called Collective Representations) The totality of beliefs and sentiments common

to average citizens of the same society forms a determinate system which has its own life, one may call it the collective or common

conscience. People are born into the collective conscience,

and it regulates their perceptions and behavior. What Durkheim was denoting with the concept of collective conscience, then, is

that social systems evidence systems of ideas, such as values, beliefs, and norms, that

constrain the thoughts and actions of individuals.

In the course of his analysis of the collective conscience, Durkheim conceptualized its varying states as having four variables Volume

Denotes the degree to which the values, beliefs, and rules of the collective conscience are shared by the members of a society

IntensityIndicates the extent to which the collective conscience

has power to guide a person’s thoughts and actions Determinateness

Denotes the degree of clarity in the components of the collective conscience

ContentPertains to the ratio of religious to purely secular

symbolism in the collective conscience

First, it is clear that Durkheim thought of the collective conscience as occurring throughout a given society when he wrote of the "totality" of people's beliefs and sentiments.

Second, Durkheim clearly conceived of the collective conscience as being independent and capable of determining other social facts. It is not just a reflection of a material base as Marx sometimes suggested.

Finally, although be held such views of the collective conscience, Durkheim also wrote of its being "realized" through individual consciousness.

According to Durkheim, the desires and self-interests of human beings can only be held in check by forces that originate outside of the individual. Durkheim characterizes this external force as a collective conscience, a common social bond that is expressed by the ideas, values, norms, beliefs, and ideologies of a culture.

III. The Division of Labor in Society

In The Division of Labor, Durkheim identifies two forms or types of solidarity, which are based on different sources. Mechanical solidarity is “solidarity which comes from likeness and is at its maximum when the collective conscience completely envelops our whole conscience and coincides in all points with it.”

1. Mechanical solidarity

Mechanical solidarity occurs in early societies in which there is not much division of labor. Such societies are relatively homogenous, men and women engage in similar tasks and daily activities, people have similar experiences. In such societies the few distinct institutions express similar values and norms and tend to reinforce one another.

The norms, values, and beliefs of the society (or the collective conscience) are so homogenous and confront the individual with such overwhelming and consistent force, that there is little opportunity in such societies for individuality or deviance from this collective conscience.

According to Durkheim, traditional cultures experience a high level of social and moral integration, there was little individuation, and most behaviors were governed by social norms which were usually embodied in religion.

By engaging in the same activities and rituals, people in traditional societies shared common moral values, which Durkheim called a collective conscience. In these societies, people tend to regard themselves as members of a group; the collective conscience embraces individual awareness, and there is little sense of personal options

2. Organic solidarity

Organic solidarity develops as a by-product of the division of labor. As society becomes more complex, individuals play more specialized roles and become ever more dissimilar in their social experiences, material interests, values, and beliefs

Individuals in such a sociocultural system have less in common; however, they must become more dependent upon each other for their survival

The growth of individualism is an inevitable result of the increasing division of labor, and this individualism can only develop at the expense of the common values, morality, beliefs, and normative rules of society—the sentiments and beliefs that are held by all.

With the loosening of these common rules and values we also lose our sense of community, or identity with the group. The social bond is thereby weakened and social values and beliefs no longer provide us with coherent or insistent moral guidance.

And this loosening lends itself to anomie. Again, according to Durkheim, if an individual lacks any sense of social restraint her self-interest will be unleashed, she will seek to satisfy her own appetites with little thought on the possible effect her action will have on others.

Instead of asking “is this moral?” or “does my family approve?” the individual is more likely to ask “does this action meet my needs?” The individual is left to find her own way in the world—a world in which personal options for behavior have multiplied as strong and insistent norms and moral guidelines have weakened.

Anomie (Definition)

When social regulations break down, the controlling influence of society on individual propensities is no longer effective and individuals are left to their own devices. Such a state of affairs Durkheim calls anomieanomie, a term that refers to a condition of relative normlessness in a whole society or in some of its component groups. Anomie does not refer to a state of mind, but to a property of the social structure. It characterizes a condition in which individuals desires are no longer regulated by common norms and where, as a consequence, individuals are left without moral guidance in the pursuit of their goals.

Anomic Division of Labor

Represents insufficient normative regulation of individuals’ activities, with the result that individuals do not feel attached to the collectivity.

Anomie is inevitable when the transformation of societies from mechanical to an organic basis of social solidarity is rapid and causes the “generalization,” or “enfeeblement,” of values. With generalization, individuals’ attachment to, and regulation by, values is lessened.

The results of this anomic situation are diverse. One result is that individuals feel

alienated, because their only attachment is to the monotony and crushing schedule dictated by the machines of the industrial age

Another is the escalated frustrations and the sense of deprivation, manifested by increased incident of revolt, that come in a state of underregulation.

Unlike Marx, however, Durkheim did not consider these consequences inevitable. He rejected the notion that there were inherent contradictions in capitalism, for if, in certain cases, organic solidarity is not all it should be . . . [it is] because all the conditions for the existence of organic solidarity have not been realized”

Social Solidarity or Social Integration

Again . . . .The question of social solidarity, or integration,

turns on several related issues: How are individuals made to feel part of a larger

social collective? How are their desires and wants constrained in

ways that allow them to participate in the collective?

How are the activities of individuals and other social units coordinated and adjusted to one another?

IV :Suicide: A Study In Sociology

Durkheim’s study does not simply describe the suicide rates in Europe in the nineteenth century. Instead he begins with the basic assumption that too much or too little integration or regulation (cohesion) is unhealthy for a society, and from this he derives specific hypotheses about suicide

Two Types of Integration

Attachment Attachment to social groups and their goals.

Such attachment involves the maintenance of interpersonal ties and the perception that one is a part of a larger collectively.

Regulation Regulation by the collective conscience

(values, beliefs, and general norms) of social gatherings. Such regulation limits individual aspirations and needs, keeping them in check.

Suicide and Social Integration

Humans can potentially reveal unlimited desires and passions, which must be

regulated and held in check.Yet total regulation of passions and

desires creates a situation where life loses all meaning.

Humans need interpersonal attachments and a sense that these attachments connect them to collective purposes.

Yet excessive attachment can undermine personal autonomy to the point where life loses meaning for the individual.

Social Forces

facts cannot explain such matters as the influence of the calendar, economic But facts like these cannot explain variations in suicide rates among different racial, ethnic, religious, and occupational groups.

Individualistic conditions,or social mobility on suicide.

Durkheim insisted that sociology is a study of human social behavior, the things we do and are, not because of our biological organism, not because of psychological conditioning, but because we are a member of a society

Durkheim's basic assumption is that much of what we do and are can only be explained by reference to forces outside of and beyond the individual.

To put it another way, social forces are emergent, which means "appearing as a result of organization and unpredictable from knowledge of the component parts."

suicide

In order to demonstrate the power of social forces, Durkheim examined the different rates of suicide in specific groups and the characteristics of these groups.

In order to explain regular differential rates of suicide in various religious and occupational groups, Durkheim studied the character of these groups, specifically, their ways of bringing about cohesion and solidarity among their members.

He hypothesized that a significant increase of suicide rates in a particular group indicates that the social cohesion in that group has been weakened and its members are no longer sufficiently protected against crisis.

Groups that have high suicide rates all have in common a relative lack of cohesion, or a condition of relative "normlessness."

Through an examination of secondary data, Durkheim demonstrated that suicide varies inversely with the degree of integration.

One of the major elements of integration is the extent to which various members of a group interact with one another.

Work activities that depend on differentiated yet complementary tasks bind workers to the work group.

In collectivities where a high degree of consensus exists over group values, there is less behavioral deviance than in groups with less consensus on values.

The stronger the credo of a religious group, the more unified the group is likely to be, and therefore better able to provide an environment that will insulate its members from frustrating experiences.

Protestantism "concedes a greater freedom of individual thought than Catholicism...it has fewer common beliefs and practices."

In the case of protestantism, we should see higher rates of suicide (and other deviant acts) not because of a lack of integration, but as a response to the group emphasis on autonomy and individualism.

Durkheim reasoned:

Suicide everywhereOften rates stableTherefore normalSudden spurts “abnormal”Social forces at work

SUICIDE: EGOISTIC

When men (and woman) are not sufficiently integrated into social groups, they are prone to egoistic suicide.

SUICIDE: ALTRUISTIC

When the group is overly strong in its regulation of individuals, and the group “requires” suicide, the individual is susceptible to succumbing to altruistic suicide.

SUICIDE: ANOMIC

When the group fails to give the individual enough regulation and guidance, men are susceptible (easily influenced by feelings) to succumbing (yield) to anomic suicide.

Egoism

(Integration Low)

 

 

  Anomie Fatalism

(Regulation Low) (Regulation High)

 

  Altruism

(Integration High)

assessmentMajor Contributions:Several major contributions to sociology:

Distinguishing and elaborating the field of sociology from other social sciences

Emphasis on empirical data to lend support to theoretical speculations

Focus on the division of labor and its consequences for social life

Collective conscience or the need for a common core of values and moral rules

Functionalism